Advanced Automation for Tree Fruit Orchards and Vineyards

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Tree and Vine Physiology
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Specialized Solar Energy Collection
1.1.2 Photosynthesis
1.1.3 Interactions Between Photosynthesis and Water Use
1.2 Factors That Influence Photosynthesis in Fruit Trees and Vines
1.2.1 Light
1.2.2 Sink Strength
1.2.3 Temperature
1.3 Principles of Photosynthate Distribution and Use
1.3.1 First Principle: A Tree or Vine Is a Collection of Semiautonomous Organs, and Each Organ Has a Genetically Determined, Organ-Specific Developmental Pattern and Growth Potential
1.3.2 Second Principle: The Genetic Growth Potential of an Organ Is Activated or Deactivated by Organ-Specific, Endogenous and/or Environmental Signals
1.3.3 Third Principle: After an Organ Is Activated, Current Environmental Conditions and Genetic Growth Potential Interact to Determine Conditional Organ Growth Capacity
1.3.4 Fourth Principle: Actual Organ Growth Is a Consequence of Conditional Organ Growth Capacity, Resource Availability (Assimilate and Nutrient Supply), and Inter-organ Competition for Those Resources
1.4 Carbohydrate Storage
1.5 Fruit Tree Canopy Architecture
1.5.1 Tree Architecture
1.5.2 Architecture-Informed Pruning
1.6 Orchard and Vineyard Pests and Diseases
1.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 2: Mechanical Management of Modern Planar Fruit Tree Canopies
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Importance of Modern Tree Canopy Management
2.1.2 Conventional Tree Canopy Management
2.1.3 Tree Fruit Production Mechanization with Modern Tree Canopies
2.2 Robot-Canopy Interaction
2.2.1 Kinematic Dexterity and Spatial Manipulation Requirements
2.2.2 Manipulation Controls
2.2.3 Path Planning and Task Sequencing
2.2.4 Obstacle Avoidance
2.3 Tree Canopy In-Field Sensing and 3D Reconstruction for Mechanization
2.3.1 In-Field Sensing Technologies
2.3.1.1 Photogrammetry Imaging for 3D Reconstruction
2.3.1.2 LiDAR Imaging for 3D Reconstruction
2.3.2 Image Processing Techniques
2.3.2.1 Deep Learning Algorithms
2.3.2.2 Improvements in Deep Learning
2.4 Robotic Branch Pruning for Modern Apple Trees (Case Study)
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Design of the Robotic Pruning Manipulator System
2.4.2.1 Pruning End-Effector Design
2.4.2.2 Integrated Pruning Manipulator Design
2.4.2.3 Performance Indices of Robotic Pruner
2.4.3 Collision-Free Path Planning for Robotic Pruning
2.4.3.1 Reconstruction of Apple Trees
2.4.3.2 Path Planning Algorithms and Simulation
2.4.4 Prototype Development and Field Tests
2.5 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
Chapter 3: Orchard Water Management
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Advances in Almond Orchard Irrigation Systems
3.2.1 Zone Irrigation Management (ZIM) and Variable Rate Irrigation (VRI)
3.2.2 Automation of Orchard Smart Irrigation Systems
3.2.3 New Approaches to Assessing Orchard Irrigation System Performance
3.3 Orchard Crop Water Use
3.4 Smart Irrigation Scheduling
3.4.1 Soil Water Monitoring
3.4.2 Tree Water Status Monitoring
3.4.3 Remote Sensing of Evapotranspiration
3.5 Strategies for Reducing Water Use in Orchards
3.5.1 Irrigation Systems Related Strategies
3.5.1.1 Deficit Irrigation as a Strategy to Reduce Orchard Water Use
3.5.1.2 Reducing Soil Evaporation
3.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Vineyard Water Management
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Current Methods for Vineyard Water Status Monitoring
4.3 Vineyard Spatial Variability
4.4 Noninvasive Technologies for Vineyard Water Status Monitoring
4.4.1 Thermography and Infrared Radiometry
4.4.1.1 Thermal Stress Indices
4.4.1.2 Remote and Proximal Thermal Imaging
4.4.1.3 Infrared Radiometers
4.4.1.4 Additional Physiological and Practical Considerations Regarding Thermography
4.4.2 NIR Spectroscopy, Multispectral Imagery (MSI), and Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI)
4.4.2.1 Working with the Whole Spectrum
4.4.2.2 Spectral Indices
4.5 Strategies for Reducing Water Use in Vineyards
4.6 Smart Irrigation Scheduling
4.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Pest and Disease Management
5.1 Orchard and Vineyard Management for Pests and Diseases
5.2 Sensing and Actuation Technologies for Pests
5.2.1 State-of-the-Art Sensing and Actuation Technologies for Pests
5.2.1.1 Machine Vision and Imaging Technologies
5.2.1.2 Trapping
5.2.1.3 Data Mining
5.2.1.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
5.2.1.5 DNA Analysis
5.2.1.6 Landscape Elements and Soil Management
5.2.1.7 Vibrational Signals
5.2.1.8 Precision Spraying
5.2.1.9 Bird Control
5.2.1.10 Summary
5.2.2 Emerging Technologies for Pests
5.3 Sensing and Actuation Technologies for Plant Diseases
5.3.1 State-of-the-Art Sensing and Actuation Technologies for Plant Diseases
5.3.2 Emerging Technologies for Plant Diseases
5.3.2.1 Plant Volatile Organic Compounds
5.3.2.2 Biosensors
5.3.2.3 Non-destructive/Non-invasive Sensing Technologies
5.3.2.4 Hyperspectral Imaging
5.3.2.5 Sensing Platforms and Robots
5.3.2.6 Artificial Intelligence for Crop Protection
5.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Advanced Technologies for Crop-Load Management
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Tree Training
6.1.2 Tree Pruning
6.1.3 Blossom and Fruit Thinning
6.1.4 Crop Pollination
6.2 Advancement in Training and Pruning Technologies
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Machine Vision for Selective/Robotic Pruning
6.2.3 Pruning Strategies and Rules
6.2.4 Integrated Pruning Systems
6.3 Precision Thinning
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Flower and Green Fruit (Fruitlet) Thinning
6.3.3 Integrated Thinning Systems
6.3.4 Green Shoot Thinning in Vineyards
6.4 Artificial Pollination
6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Mechanical and Robotic Pollination Techniques
6.5 Challenges and Future Directions
References
Chapter 7: Mechanical Harvesting
7.1 History, Perspective, and Evolution
7.2 General Considerations, Goals, and Challenges Associated with Harvest Method Selection
7.3 Factors and Variables That Influence or Are Associated with Fruit Detachment, Mechanical Harvest, and System Development Potential
7.3.1 Plant Physiology
7.3.2 Coupled Physiological and Physical
7.3.3 Mechanically Induced
7.3.4 Others
7.4 Engineering Concepts, Theory, and Biological Variability Behind Fruit Removal
7.4.1 Theoretical Types of Dynamic Motions and Subsequent Static and Dynamic Forces Occurring during Vibration/Shaking or Other Forces Applied to the Tree/Vine During Mechanical Harvest
7.4.2 Fundamental Concepts of Mechanical Harvest
7.4.2.1 Trunk Shaking: Indirect Detachment
7.4.2.2 Limb Shaking: Indirect Detachment
7.4.2.3 Canopy Shaking: Combination (Hybrid) of Indirect and Direct Detachment
7.4.2.4 Air Blast: Combination (Hybrid) of Indirect and Direct Detachment
7.4.2.5 Catching Systems
7.5 Effectiveness: Examples of Current, Obsolete, and Unsuccessful Systems
7.5.1 Cherries
7.5.2 Oranges
7.5.3 Grapes
7.5.4 Apples
7.6 Robotics: The Future?
7.6.1 Robotic Subtasks
7.6.1.1 Identification of Fruit and Its Location
7.6.1.2 Movement to Fruit Location and Detachment
7.6.1.3 Controlling the Detached Fruit and Moving It to the Subsequent Handling System
7.7 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Autonomous Platforms
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sensing
8.2.1 Absolute Positioning
8.2.2 Relative Positioning
8.2.3 Onboard Sensors
8.2.3.1 Cameras
8.2.3.2 LiDAR and Other 3D Imaging Techniques
8.2.3.3 Hyperspectral and Infrared Imaging
8.2.3.4 Other Sensing Techniques
8.3 Decision-Making and Data Processing
8.3.1 Decision-Making
8.3.1.1 Safety
8.3.1.2 Task Planning
8.3.2 Data Processing
8.4 Control Systems
8.5 Path Planning and Optimization Systems
8.6 Fleets
8.6.1 Centralized Fleet Management
8.6.2 Decentralized Fleet Management
8.7 Examples of Existing Technologies
8.8 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 9: Management Information Systems and Emerging Technologies
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Farm Management Information Systems for Crop Production
9.1.1.1 Historical Overview
9.1.1.2 FMIS for Precision Agriculture
9.1.1.3 FMIS Adoption and Profitability
9.1.2 Applications for Tree Fruit Orchards and Vineyards
9.1.2.1 Pest Control Information Systems
9.1.2.2 Irrigation Management Information Systems
9.1.2.3 Harvest Management Information Systems
9.2 Big Data in the Emerging Technologies
9.2.1 Sensing and Monitoring
9.2.2 Data Management
9.2.3 Big Data Analytics
9.2.4 Machine Learning
9.2.4.1 Types of Machine Learning Algorithms
9.2.4.2 Application Domains
9.3 Decision-Making and Intervention
9.3.1 Agricultural Decision Support Systems (DSS)
9.3.2 Types of Agricultural DSS
9.3.2.1 Irrigation DSS
9.3.2.2 Fertilization DSS
9.3.2.3 Pest Management DSS
9.3.3 Examples of DSS in Agriculture
9.4 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Economic and Societal Aspects
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Economic Views on Automation and Social Welfare
10.3 California Agriculture: From Worker Abundance to Labor Scarcity
10.4 Farmer Responses to a Diminishing Farm Labor Supply
10.5 Agricultural Technology as a Service
10.6 Industry and University Responses to a Diminishing Farm Labor Supply
10.7 Economic Welfare and Automation
10.8 Conclusion
References