A Phonological History of Chinese

A Phonological History of Chinese
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Foreword by William S-Y. Wang 王士元
Preface
Major Periods of Chinese History
Locations of Ancient Capitals of China
Part I: The Keys to Traditional Phonology
1 An Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology
1.1 Defining Chinese
1.2 The Nature of Phonological History
1.2.1 Chinese Phonology through Written Record
1.2.2 Phonological Categories in Logographic Systems
1.2.3 Terminology of Traditional Chinese Phonology
1.2.4 Syllable Structure
1.2.5 Nonsyllabic Phonological Characteristics
1.3 Yùnshū 韻書 ‘Rhyme Dictionaries’
1.3.1 The Qièyùn 切韻 (601)
1.3.2 Fǎnqiè 反切
1.3.3 Zhíyīn 直音 Notation
1.3.4 Shēngdiào 聲調 ‘Tones’
1.3.5 Yùnxì 韻系 ‘Rhyme Series’
1.4 Yùntú 韻圖 ‘Rhyme Tables (Rhyme Charts)’
1.4.1 The Thirty-Six Initials
1.4.2 The Qīngzhuó 清濁 System
1.4.3 Yīndiào 陰調 and Yángdiào 陽調
1.4.4 Děng 等 ‘Division’ and ‘Rank’
1.4.5 Kāihé 開合
1.4.6 Chóngniǔ 重紐 and Chóngyùn 重韻
1.4.7 Sìhū 四呼
1.4.8 Wàizhuǎn 外轉 and Nèizhuǎn 內轉
1.4.9 Shè 攝 ‘Rhyme Groups’
1.4.10 Yīnshēng Yùn 陰聲韻, Yángshēng Yùn 陽聲韻, and Rùshēng Yùn 入聲韻
1.5 Nonanalytical Source Materials
1.5.1 Poem Rhyming
1.5.2 Foreign Transcriptions and Sino-Xenic Pronunciation
1.5.3 Xiéshēng Characters 諧聲字
1.6 The Availability and Reliability of Source Materials
1.7 Periodization
1.8 Reconstruction
1.9 Transcriptions
Part II: Old Chinese
2 Old Chinese
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 The Tibeto-Burman Connection
2.1.2 Methodology and Working Principles
2.2 Source Materials
2.2.1 Shījīng 詩經 Rhyming
2.2.2 Xiéshēng Characters 諧聲字
2.2.3 Partially Reduplicated Words
2.2.4 The Qièyùn 切韻 System
2.3 Reconstruction
2.3.1 The Reconstruction of Syllable Structures
2.3.2 The Reconstruction of Onsets
2.3.2.1 Simple Initials
2.3.2.2 Cluster Initials
2.3.2.2.1 Initial Clusters with l-
2.3.2.2.2 Initial Clusters with s-
2.3.2.2.3 hN- Clusters or Voiceless Nasals
2.3.2.3 Post-Stem Elements
2.3.2.3.1 The Post-Stem -r- and Middle Chinese Rank-II Syllables
2.3.2.3.2 The Post-Stem -r- and Middle Chinese Rank-IIIb Syllables
2.3.2.3.3 Structure of Initial Consonant Clusters
2.3.3 The Reconstruction of Rhymes
2.3.3.1 The Codas of the Rhyme Groups
2.3.3.2 The Relationships between Rhyme Groups
2.3.3.3 The Absence of Medials
2.3.3.3.1 The Deletion of Middle Chinese -w- Medial
2.3.3.3.2 The Short Vowels and Middle Chinese Rank-III Syllables
2.3.3.4 Main Vowels
2.3.3.4.1 The Number of Main Vowels
2.3.3.4.2 Four-Vowel System
2.3.3.4.3 Six-Vowel System
2.3.3.5 The Codas
2.3.3.5.1 The Post-Coda Segments and Tonal Developments
2.3.3.5.2 Segmentals to Suprasegmentals
2.3.3.5.3 The -ʔ Becomes Middle Chinese Shǎng Tone
2.3.3.5.4 The -s and the Middle Chinese Qù Tone
2.3.3.5.5 The -r Coda
2.3.4 The Reconstruction of Syllable Structures
2.3.5 Recent Advances
2.3.5.1 Syllable Structures
2.3.5.2 Pharyngeals
2.3.5.3 The Uvular Series
2.4 Examples of Old Chinese
Part III: Middle Chinese
3 Middle Chinese: The Qièyùn 切韻
3.1 Special Notes on the Qièyùn 切韻 and Fǎnqiè 反切
3.1.1 The Fǎnqiè of Rank-III
3.1.2 The Information Contained within the Qièyùn
3.1.3 Some Main Issues of the Qièyùn
3.1.4 A Single System or a Composite System
3.1.5 The Qièyùn Rhymes and the Nature of the Yùn 韻
3.1.6 The Revisions of the Qièyùn and the Splitting of Rhymes
3.2 The Nature of the Rhymes
3.2.1 New Approaches
3.2.2 A Possible Solution
3.3 Complementary and Near-Complementary Relationships
3.4 Syllable Structure
3.4.1 Suprasegmental Tones
3.4.2 Segmentals
3.4.3 Initials (I)
3.4.4 Medials (M)
3.4.5 Main Vowels (V)
3.4.6 Codas (E)
3.5 Phonological Characteristics of Middle Chinese
3.5.1 The Tripartite Distinction of Stop and Affricate Initials
3.5.2 The Labials
3.5.3 The Retroflex Stops
3.5.4 The Four Ranks (Divisions)
3.5.4.1 The Status of Rank-III Syllables
3.5.5 The Kāihé 開合 Contrast
3.5.6 The Contrast of Chóngniǔ 重紐 Syllables
3.5.7 The Contrast of Chóngyùn 重韻 Rhymes
3.5.8 Final Types
3.5.8.1 Rhymes jì 祭, tài 泰, guài 夬, and fèi 廢
3.6 Modern Evidence of the Phonological Contrasts
3.6.1 The Three-Way Contrast of Phonation Types
3.6.2 The Coda System
3.6.3 The Chóngniǔ 重紐 Contrast
3.6.4 The Chóngyùn 重韻 Contrast
3.6.5 The Contrast of Rank-III and Rank-IV
3.7 Examples of Middle Chinese Phonology
4 Middle Chinese: The Tang and Song Dynasties
4.1 The Tang Dynasty (618–907)
4.1.1 Xuánzàng’s 玄奘 Inscriptions
4.1.2 Simplification and Tóngyòng 同用 Marking
4.1.3 The New Standard
4.1.4 Devoicing of Voiced Stops and Affricates
4.1.5 Labiodentalization
4.1.6 Later Middle Chinese
4.2 The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)
4.2.1 Ěryǎ Yīntú 爾雅音圖 (tenth century)
4.2.2 Northwest Dialects
4.3 Northern Song (960–1127)
4.3.1 Guǎngyùn 廣韻 (1008)
4.3.2 Jíyùn 集韻 (1039) and Lǐbù Yùnlüè 禮部韻略 (1037)
4.3.3 Shēngyīn Chànghè Tú 聲音唱和圖
4.3.3.1 Initials
4.3.3.1.1 Devoicing of Voiced Obstruents
4.3.3.1.2 Labiodentals
4.3.3.1.3 The Status of Middle Chinese zhī 知and zhào 照 Initials
4.3.3.1.4 The Loss of the Nasal Quality of the Middle Chinese rì 日 Initial
4.3.3.2 Finals
4.3.3.2.1 Loss of Stop Codas
4.3.3.2.2 Simplification of the Vowel System: The Merger of the Middle Chinese zēng 曾 and gěng 梗 Rhyme Groups
4.3.3.2.3 Centralized Vowels, i > ɨ
4.3.3.3 Tones
4.3.4 Summary
4.4 Southern Song (1127–1297)
4.4.1 Hangzhou Dialect
4.4.2 The Sìshēng Děngzǐ 四聲等子
4.4.3 The Qièyùn Zhǐzhǎngtú 切韻指掌圖
4.4.4 The Qièyùn Zhǐnán 切韻指南
4.5 Examples of Tang Poetry
Part IV: The Beginnings of Mandarin
5 The Chinese of the Liao, Jin, and Xixia Dynasties
5.1 The Liao Dynasty (916–1125)
5.1.1 The Khitan Materials
5.1.2 Diphthongization of Middle Chinese Syllables with Coda -k
5.1.3 Devoicing of Middle Chinese Voiced Obstruents
5.1.4 Labiodentalization
5.1.5 The Merger of the Middle Chinese zhī 知 and zhào 照 Initial Series
5.1.6 The Loss of the Middle Chinese Stop Codas -p, -t, -k
5.1.7 The Status of the Middle Chinese Velar Nasal Initial ŋ-
5.1.8 The Middle Chinese Bilabial Nasal Coda -m
5.1.9 Middle Chinese má-III (麻) Syllables
5.1.10 The Foundations of Mandarin
5.1.11 Examples
5.2 The Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)
5.2.1 The Gǎibìng Wǔyīn Jíyùn 改併五音集韻 1212)
5.2.1.1 The Merger of Rhymes
5.2.1.2 Chóngniǔ 重紐 Syllables
5.2.2 The Jurchen Materials
5.2.2.1 Diphthongization of Middle Chinese Syllables with Coda -k
5.2.2.2 Devoicing of Middle Chinese Voiced Obstruents
5.2.2.3 Labiodentalization of Middle Chinese Bilabial Initials
5.2.2.4 Loss of Middle Chinese Stop Codas -p, -t, -k
5.2.2.5 Retention of the Middle Chinese Velar Nasal Initial ŋ-
5.2.2.6 Loss of the Middle Chinese Bilabial Nasal Coda -m
5.3 The Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)
5.3.1 The Tangut Script
5.3.1.1 Basic Phonological Characteristics
5.3.1.2 Devoicing of Middle Chinese Voiced Obstruents
5.3.1.3 Labiodentalization
5.3.1.4 The Merger of the Middle Chinese zhī 知 and zhào 照 Initials Series
5.3.1.5 The Loss of Stop Codas
5.3.1.6 The Loss of Nasal Codas
5.3.1.7 Centralization of High Front Vowels
5.3.2 Phonological Characteristics and Differences of Northern Dialects
5.3.2.1 A Comparison of Two Northern Dialects
Part V: A New Standard
6 Old Mandarin: The Ménggǔ Zìyùn 蒙古字韻
6.1 The ḥP’ags-pa Script
6.1.1 Adaptations between Tibetan and ḥP’ags-pa Script
6.1.2 The Syllable Block
6.1.3 The Problems of the Script
6.1.4 Phonological Contrasts That Cannot Be Reflected
6.2 The Phonological System of the Ménggǔ Zìyùn 蒙古字韻
6.2.1 The Fifteen Rhyme Groups
6.2.2 The Phonetic Values of the ḥP’ags-pa Letters
6.2.3 The Spelling of Finals
6.2.4 The Subsystems of Finals
6.2.5 Tonal Marks
6.3 Sound Changes in the Initial System
6.3.1 The Loss of Voiced Obstruents
6.3.2 Labiodentalization of Middle Chinese Bilabial Initials
6.3.3 The Loss of the Middle Chinese yí 疑 ŋ- Initial
6.4 Sound Changes in the Final System
6.4.1 The Medial
6.4.2 The Reduction of the Vowel System
6.4.3 Chóngniǔ 重紐 Reflexes in the Ménggǔ Zìyùn
6.4.4 The Loss of Final Consonant Codas
6.4.5 Diphthongization of Middle Chinese Syllables with Coda -k
6.4.6 The Loss of the Parallel Relationship between yáng and rù Syllables
6.4.7 The Contrast of jan/jɛn and jaw/jɛw
6.4.8 The High Central (Apical) Vowel
6.4.9 Vowel Raising
7 Old Mandarin: The Zhōngyuán Yīnyùn 中原音韻
7.1 The Base Dialect
7.1.1 The Influence of Southern Mandarin
7.2 The Zhèngyǔ Zuòcí Qǐlì 正語作詞起例
7.2.1 Dialect Features
7.3 The Phonetic Reconstruction
7.3.1 Initials (21)
7.3.1.1 The wēi 微 and rì 日 Initials
7.3.1.2 The Value of the Retroflex Series
7.3.2 Finals (47)
7.4 Innovative Characteristics of the Zhōngyuán Yīnyùn 中原音韻
7.4.1 Devoicing of the Middle Chinese Voiced Obstruents in the Initial Position
7.4.2 The Emergence of the Labiodental Fricative
7.4.3 The Development of the High Central (Apical) Vowels
7.4.4 The New Four-Tone System
7.4.4.1 The Loss of the Stop Coda and the Disappearance of the Middle Chinese rù Tone
7.4.5 The Loss of the Middle Chinese yí 疑 Velar Nasal Initial
7.4.6 The Disappearance of the Four-Rank System of Finals
7.4.6.1 The Complete Loss of the Contrast between Middle Chinese Rank-III and -IV Syllables
7.4.6.2 The Residual Chóngniǔ Contrast
7.4.6.3 Rank-II and Rank-III Contrast
7.4.6.4 The Emergence of the chē-zhē 車遮 Rhyme
7.4.7 The Preservation of the -m Coda
7.4.8 The jiān-tuán 尖團 Distinction
7.5 Examples of Yuan Pronunciation
7.6 Summary
8 Old Mandarin: The Persian Transcriptions
8.1 The Ancient Persian Script
8.2 History of China
8.2.1 Middle Chinese Voiced Stops and Affricates
8.2.2 The Loss of Velar Nasal Initial yí 疑 ŋ-
8.2.3 Middle Chinese rì 日 Initial
8.2.4 Middle Chinese wēi 微 Initial
8.2.5 The Coda of rù 入 Syllables
8.2.6 High Centralized (Apical) Vowels
8.2.7 Main Vowel -e
8.2.8 Summary of Features
8.3 The Mài Jué 脈訣
8.3.1 The Stop Codas of the rù 入 Syllables
8.3.2 The Inconsistency of the Stop Coda in the Transcription
8.3.3 The Dialectal Features Reflected in the Transcription
8.3.4 The Nebulous Nature of Early Guānhuà 官話
Part VI: Toward Modern Mandarin
9 The Mandarin of the Ming Dynasty
9.1 North Versus South
9.1.1 Guānhuà 官話
9.2 The Hóngwǔ Zhèngyùn 洪武正韻 (1375)
9.2.1 Initials
9.2.2 Finals
9.2.3 Tones
9.2.4 A Coherent System
9.2.5 Zhèngyīn 正音 and Súyīn 俗音
9.2.6 Revision of the Hóngwǔ Zhèngyùn
9.3 The Yùnluè Yìtōng 韻略易通 (1442)
9.3.1 Initials and the Zǎo Méi 早梅 ‘Early Plum Blossom’ Poem
9.3.2 Finals and the Twenty Rhyme Groups
9.3.3 Běnwù’s 本悟 Revision
9.3.4 Tones
9.4 The Sìshēng Tōngjiě 四聲通解 (1517), Fānyì Lǎo Qǐdà 翻譯老乞大, and Fānyì Piáo Tōngshì 翻譯朴通事
9.4.1 Initials
9.4.1.1 The Description of Retroflex Initials
9.4.1.2 Exceptional Changes
9.4.2 Finals
9.4.2.1 The Loss of -p, -t, -k
9.4.2.2 The Loss of -m, -m > -n
9.4.2.3 Middle Chinese tōng 通 Rhyme Group Syllables
9.4.2.4 The -w- of Middle Chinese kāikǒu 開口 Syllables
9.4.2.5 The Change of -jaj and -waw
9.4.2.6 The Change of -jan/m > -jɛn/m
9.4.2.7 The Change of -jɛw > -jaw
9.4.2.8 The Change of -iw > -əw
9.4.3 Tone Sandhi
9.5 The Xīrú Ěrmù Zī 西儒耳目資 (1626)
9.5.1 Initials
9.5.2 Finals
9.5.3 Tones
9.6 The Děngyùn Tújīng 等韻圖經 (1606)
9.6.1 Initials
9.6.1.1 Palatalized Initials
9.6.1.2 Initial Conditioned Change: The Vowel Centralization and the Loss of the Medial -j- after Retroflex Initials
9.6.2 Finals
9.6.3 Tones
9.6.4 Innovative Features
9.6.4.1 The Merger of Middle Chinese Division-II and Division-III Syllables with zhī 知 and zhào 照 Initials
9.6.4.2 The Loss of the Middle Chinese wēi 微 ɱ- Initial
9.6.4.3 The Loss of the Middle Chinese yí 疑 ŋ- Initial
9.6.4.4 The Rounded Central Vowel -ʉ
9.6.4.5 The Emergence of ɚ
10 The Mandarin of the Qing Dynasty and the Modern Era
10.1 The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)
10.1.1 The Yùdìng Pèiwén Yùnfǔ 御定佩文韻府 (1711)
10.1.2 The Yīnyùn Chǎnwēi 音韻闡微 (1728)
10.1.3 The Wade Textbook (1867)
10.1.3.1 Initials
10.1.3.2 Finals
10.1.3.2.1 Further Notes on Finals
10.1.3.3 Tones
10.1.3.3.1 Tone Sandhi
10.1.3.4 Colloquial Speech: Neutral Tone and Rhotacized Finals
10.1.3.5 Alternative Readings
10.2 Post-Imperial China (1912–present)
10.2.1 The Old National Standard
10.2.2 The New National Standard
10.2.3 Modern Standard Phonology
10.2.4 Modern Dialects (Fāngyán 方言)
10.2.4.1 Dialect Classification
10.2.4.2 The Northern Dialects: Mandarin and Jin
10.2.4.3 The Central Dialects: Wu, Hui, Gan, and Xiang
10.2.4.4 The Southern Dialects: Min, Kejia, Yue, and Ping
10.2.4.5 The Nature of Dialect Formation
References
Index