A Multidisciplinary Introduction to Desalination

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Foreword I
Foreword II
Preface
List of Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Abbreviations
Part I: Introduction
1: Water Scarcity: Where We Stand
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Global Drivers and Trends
1.2.1 Climate Change
1.2.2 Urbanization
1.2.3 Water as a Human Right
1.2.4 Water and Conflict
1.3 “Food–Energy–Water” Nexus
1.4 Concluding Remarks
References
2: Alternative Freshwater Solutions to Desalination
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Background
2.1.2 Sustainable Alternatives to Desalination
2.1.3 Smart and Innovative Alternatives
2.2 Integrated Freshwater Management Solutions
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Solutions for Delta Areas and Seasonal Dry Areas in General
2.2.3 Solutions for Agricultural Areas
2.2.4 Solutions for Natural Reserves
2.2.5 Solutions for the Built Environment
2.2.6 An Integrated Solution: Freshwater Wetlands
2.3 Rainwater Harvesting: Capture and Use of Rain and Storm Water
2.3.1 Introduction and Principles
2.3.2 Benefits and Challenges of Rainwater Harvesting
2.3.3 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System
2.3.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting using Natural Components
2.3.4 Calculating the Potential of Rainwater Harvesting
2.3.5 Additional Information
2.4 Reclamation of Fresh Used Water (Greywater Reuse)
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Greywater Reuse
2.4.3 Used Water Treatment Technologies
2.4.3.1 Physical–Chemical used Treatment Systems
2.4.3.2 Biological used Water Treatment Systems
2.5 Concluding Remarks
References
3: Fundamentals of Desalination Technology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definitions
3.3 Unit Operations
3.4 Desalination Technologies
3.4.1 Thermal (and Evaporative) Technologies
3.4.1.1 Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF)
3.4.1.2 Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
3.4.1.3 Thermal Vapor Compression (TVC)
3.4.1.4 Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC)
3.4.1.5 Membrane Distillation (MD)
3.4.1.6 Freezing
3.4.2 Membrane Technologies
3.4.2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO)
3.4.2.2 Forward Osmosis (FO)
3.4.2.3 Electrodialysis (ED) and Electrodialysis Reversal (EDR)
3.4.3 Other Technologies
3.4.3.1 Hydrate Formation
3.4.3.2 Ion Exchange (IX)
3.4.3.3 Capacitive DeIonizaiton (CDI)
3.4.3.4 Solvent Extraction
3.4.3.5 De-Humidification
3.4.4 Hybrid Systems
3.5 Conclusion
References
4: Water Chemistry and Desalinated Water Quality
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Boron
4.1.2 Bromide
4.1.3 Calcium and Magnesium
4.1.4 Fluoride and Other Supplements
4.1.5 Organics
4.1.6 Potassium and Sodium
4.2 The Carbonate System
4.3 Water Hardness
4.4 Sodium Adsorption Ratio
4.5 Acidity and Buffering Capacity
4.6 Corrosivity
4.7 Indexes
4.8 Conclusion
References
Part II: Unit Operations
5: Thermal Processes
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
5.2.1 Types of MED Tube Arrangements
5.2.1.1 Horizontal Tube arrangement
5.2.1.2 Vertical Tube arrangement
5.2.1.3 Vertically Stacked Tube Bundles
5.2.2 Conventional MED Process
5.2.3 Multi-Effect Distillation with Thermal Vapor Compression (MED–TVC)
5.2.3.1 MED-TVC Process Description
5.3 Multi-Stage Flash (MSF)
5.3.1 MSF Configurations
5.3.2 MSF Condenser Tube Configurations
5.3.3 MSF Process Description
5.4 Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD)
5.4.1 Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC)
5.4.2 Thermal Vapor Compression (TVC)
5.5 Other Thermal Processes
5.5.1 Freezing
5.5.2 Solar Desalination
5.5.3 Humidification–Dehumidification
5.5.4 Membrane Distillation
5.5.4.1 Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD)
5.5.4.2 Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD)
5.5.4.3 Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD)
5.5.4.4 Sweep Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD)
5.6 Operational Experience of Thermal Desalination Processes
5.6.1 Pretreatment and Scale Control
5.6.2 Efficiency of Thermal Desalination Processes
5.6.3 Design Experience of Large MSF and MED–TVC Plants
5.6.4 Impact of Non-Condensable Gases (NCG)
5.6.5 Material Selection
5.6.6 Maintenance Procedures
5.6.7 Evaporator Start-Up
References
6: Membrane Desalination Technologies
6.1 Introduction to Membrane Desalination Technologies
6.2 Reverse Osmosis
6.2.1 Introduction to RO Membrane Technology
6.2.2 Membrane Materials
6.2.3 Principles and Modeling of Membrane Systems
6.2.3.1 Membrane Recovery
6.2.3.2 Permeate Flux
6.2.3.3 Mass Balance
6.2.3.4 Membrane Permeation Coefficient (A) and Salt Transport Coefficient (B)
6.2.3.5 Membrane Rejection
6.2.3.6 Trans-Membrane Pressure (TMP)
6.2.3.7 Net Driving Pressure (NDP)
6.2.3.8 Osmotic pressure
6.2.3.9 Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)
6.2.3.10 Silt Density Index (SDI)
6.2.4 RO Separation System Design
6.2.5 Restrictions of Membrane Application in Desalination
6.2.6 Concentration Polarization in Membrane Desalination
6.2.7 RO Membrane Pretreatment
6.2.8 RO Membrane Chemical Cleaning
6.2.9 RO Projection Software
6.3 Forward Osmosis (FO)
6.3.1 Introduction to FO Membrane Technology
6.3.2 Forward Osmosis Membranes and Modules
6.3.3 Draw Solutions for the FO Process
6.3.4 CP in FO Processes and FO Membrane Fouling
6.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the FO Process
6.4 Electrodialysis (ED) and Electodialysis Reversal (EDR)
6.4.1 Introduction to ED and EDR Technologies
6.4.2 ED/EDR Process Design
6.4.3 ED/EDR Membranes
6.4.4 Membrane Spacers
6.4.5 ED/EDR Electrodes
6.4.6 Comparison between ED/EDR and RO
References
7: Pretreatment
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Overview of Granular Media Filtration Technologies
7.3 Seawater Conditioning Prior to Granular Filtration
7.4 Seawater Pretreatment Prior to Filtration
7.4.1 Sedimentation
7.4.2 Dissolved Air Flotation
7.5 Selection of Granular Filter Media
7.6 Selection of the Type of Granular Media Filter
7.6.1 Removal of Algal Material from Seawater
7.6.2 Useful Life of the Filter Structure
7.6.3 Solids Retention Capacity and Handling of Turbidity Spikes
7.6.4 Costs
7.7 Membrane Filtration Overview
7.7.1 Seawater Conditioning and Pretreatment Prior to Membrane Filtration
7.7.2 Considerations for Selecting Between UF and MF Pretreatment
7.8 Considerations for Selecting Between Pressure and Vacuum-Driven Membrane Filtration
7.8.1 Source Water Quality Variations
7.8.2 Construction Costs and Energy Requirements
7.9 Lessons Learned from Existing MF/UF Systems
7.10 Concluding Remarks
References
8: Post-Treatment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Post-Treatment Processes
8.2.1 Blending
8.2.2 Direct Dosage of Chemicals
8.2.2.1 Design Considerations for Ca(OH)2 + CO2 Systems
8.2.3 Limestone (Calcium Carbonate) Dissolution
8.2.4 Dolomite Dissolution
8.3 Disinfection
8.3.1 The CT Value
8.3.2 Comparison of Various Disinfection Methods
8.3.3 Residual Disinfection
8.3.4 Disinfectant Decay Kinetics
8.4 Conclusion
References
Part III: Science and Technology
9: The Origins of Today’s Desalination Technologies
9.1 Background
9.2 The First Tentative Steps
9.3 The Appearance of an Industry in the 1800s
9.4 The Early Twentieth Century – Evaporative Advancements
9.5 The Early Twentieth Century: Membrane Developments
9.5.1 The Influence of World War II
9.6 The 1950s
9.7 The 1960s
9.8 Post 1960s
References
10: Research and Development Management
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Customer
10.3 The Invention
10.4 Patents
10.5 Models
10.6 Data
10.7 Time
10.8 The Business Aspect: Costs, Revenue, Profit
10.9 Conclusion
References
11: Membrane Chemistry and Engineering
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Membrane Processes
11.2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO)
11.2.1.1 RO Membrane made by Phase Inversion
11.2.1.2 RO Membranes made by Interfacial Polymerization
11.3 Nanofiltration
11.3.1 Forward Osmosis (FO)
11.3.2 Electrodialysis (ED) and Related Processes
11.3.3 Membrane Distillation (MD)
11.3.4 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration
11.4 Configurations
11.4.1 Membrane Configurations
11.4.2 Flow Path Considerations
11.4.3 Module Configurations
11.5 Future Developments
References
12: State-of-the-Art Desalination Research
12.1 Introduction
12.2 RO Technologies
12.3 Current State-of-the-Art Materials for Novel Membrane-Based Processes
12.4 Forward Osmosis (FO)
12.5 Aquaporin Membranes
12.6 Thermal-Based Processes
12.6.1 Membrane Distillation
12.6.2 Pervaporation (PV)
12.7 Novel Electrically-Driven Processes
12.7.1 Capacitive Deionization (CDI)
12.7.2 Microbial Desalination Cell (MDC)
References
Part IV: Energy and Environment
13: Desalination Powered by Renewable and Nuclear Energy Sources
13.1 Desalination Technologies and Renewable Energy Coupling Schemes
13.2 Global Overview
13.3 Solar Energy for Desalination
13.3.1 Direct Solar Desalination: Solar Stills
13.3.2 Indirect Solar Desalination Using Solar Collectors
13.3.3 Solar PV-RO
13.4 Wind Energy for Desalination
13.5 Geothermal Energy for Desalination
13.6 Wave Energy for Desalination
13.7 Nuclear Energy for Desalination
13.7.1 Experience with Nuclear Desalination
13.8 Conclusion and Selection Criteria
References
14: Energy Consumption and Minimization
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Energy Issues in Desalination
14.2.1 Interrelation between Water and Energy
14.2.2 Energy Demand for Desalination
14.3 SEC in Membrane-Based Processes
14.3.1 Energy Consumption in RO Desalination
14.3.2 Technological Improvements to Minimize Losses and to Increase Energy Recovery
14.3.2.1 High Efficiency Pumps
14.3.2.2 Energy Recovery Devices
14.3.2.3 New Generation Membranes
14.3.2.4 Plant Design and Operation
14.3.2.5 Development of Novel Energy-Efficient Desalination Technologies
14.3.2.6 Utilization of Renewable Energies
14.4 SEC in Thermal Processes
14.4.1 Technological Improvements to Increase Energy Efficiency
14.4.2 Dual-Purpose Power–Desalting Water Plants
14.5 SEC in Hybrid Systems
14.6 Renewable Energy (RE) Utilization for Water Desalination
14.7 Conclusions and Future R&D
References
15: Brine Management
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Desalination Brine/Concentrate Characteristics and Disposal
15.2.1 Seawater Desalination
15.2.2 Brackish Water Desalination
15.2.3 Desalination for Potable Water Reuse
15.3 Technologies for Brine/Concentrate Treatment
15.3.1 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration
15.3.2 Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal
15.3.3 Evaporation Ponds and Solar Evaporation
15.3.4 Distillation and Evaporation Systems
15.3.5 Membrane Distillation/Crystallization
15.3.6 Precipitation and Crystallization
15.3.7 Ion Exchange
15.3.8 Other Notable Processes
15.4 Implementation of Brine/Concentrate Minimization
15.5 Extraction of Constituents from Brine/Concentrate
15.5.1 Bromine
15.5.2 Calcium
15.5.3 Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide
15.5.4 Lithium
15.5.5 Magnesium
15.5.6 Nitrogen and Phosphorous
15.5.7 Potassium
15.5.8 Sodium
15.5.9 Other Notable Commodities
15.5.10 Economic Considerations
15.6 Conclusion
References
16: Environmental Impacts of Desalination Plants
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Health Issues
16.2.1 Aesthetics and Water Stability
16.2.2 Blending Waters
16.2.3 Nutritionally Desirable Components
16.2.4 Chemicals and Materials Used in Water Production
16.3 Safety Issues
16.4 Environmental Impacts
16.4.1 Seawater Intakes and Pretreatment
16.4.1.1 Intakes
16.4.1.2 Pretreatment
16.4.2 Reject Streams and Outfalls (Impact of Brine Discharge)
16.4.2.1 Salinity
16.4.2.2 Temperature
16.4.2.3 Antifouling Additives
16.4.2.4 Residual Biocides
16.4.2.5 Coagulants
16.4.2.6 Antiscalants
16.4.2.7 Metals
16.4.2.8 Antifoaming Agents (Thermal Plants Only)
16.4.2.9 Cleaning Chemicals
16.4.3 Air Quality Impacts
16.5 Mitigating the Impact of Desalination on the Environment
16.5.1 Source Water Intake
16.5.2 Reject Streams
16.5.3 Energy Use
16.5.4 Site Selection for Impact Mitigation
16.6 Avoiding Possible Disturbances
16.7 Life Cycle Assessment of Desalination Technologies
16.7.1 LCA Methodology
16.7.1.1 Phase 1: Goal and Scope Definition
16.7.1.2 Phase 2: Life Cycle Inventory
16.7.1.3 Phase 3: Life Cycle Impact Assessment
16.7.1.4 Phase 4: Interpretation
16.7.2 Main Results from Desalination LCA Studies
16.8 Conclusions
References
Part V: Social and Commercial Issues
17: Rural Desalination
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Factors that Affect the Success of Rural Desalination Systems
17.2.1 Water Resources
17.2.2 Water Needs
17.2.3 Energy Sources
17.2.4 Technological Factors
17.2.5 Social Factors
17.2.5.1 Community Involvement
17.2.5.2 Institutions and Social Power
17.2.5.3 Cultural Issues
17.2.5.4 Gender Issues
17.2.5.5 Religious Issues
17.2.6 Economic Aspects
17.3 Case Studies
17.3.1 Case Study of an Unsuccessful Project: Solar Stills on the Greek Island of Kimolos
17.3.1.1 Case study of a successful project: Photovoltaic reverse osmosis in Ksar Ghilène, Tunisia
References
18: Society, Politics, and Desalination
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Separating and Mixing Water
18.2.1 Political Groups and Separate Waters
18.3 Social Groups and Collective Costs and Benefits
18.4 Society, Politics, and Technology
18.5 Examples of Harmful and Helpful Desalination
18.5.1 Israel and Singapore
18.5.2 San Diego and Monterey
18.5.3 Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates
18.6 Desalination without Regret
References
19: Desalination Costs and Economic Feasibility
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Definition and Breakdown of Desalination Costs
19.2.1 Capital Costs
19.2.2 Operational and Maintenance Costs
19.2.2.1 Disposal costs
19.2.2.2 Energy costs
19.3 Determining the Final Cost and Price of Desalinated Water
19.4 Predictions about Future Desalination Costs
References
20: The Business of Desalination
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Key Markets
20.2.1 The Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
20.2.2 Europe
20.2.3 Americas
20.2.4 Asia Pacific
20.2.5 Sub-Saharan Africa
20.3 Technology and Energy
20.3.1 Equipment and Innovation
20.4 Finance and Companies
20.4.1 Desalination Companies
20.4.2 Finance
20.5 Looking Forward
References
Index
About the Editor