A Comprehensive Guide to Solar Energy Systems: With Special Focus on Photovoltaic Systems

Cover
Front matter
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Part 1 - Introduction
1 - Why Solar Energy?
1.1 - Introduction
1.2 - How Much Solar Energy Falls on the Earth and How Much is Used to Make Electricity?
1.3 - Types of Technology That Can Harness Solar Energy
1.4 - Why We Need to Develop Solar Energy
1.5 - The Difficulties With Harnessing Solar Energy
1.6 - Is Harnessing Solar Energy Cost Effective?
1.7 - A Comparison of Solar PV Installed Capacity With Other Renewable Forms of Energy
1.8 - The Future of Solar Energy
1.9 - Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Part 2 - Solar Energy Resource World Wide
2 - Solar Power Development in China
2.1 - Introduction
2.2 - Photovoltaic Manufacture
2.2.1 - Production
2.2.2 - Photovoltaic Technology
2.2.2.1 - Technical Efficiency
2.2.2.2 - Economics
2.2.3 - Photovolt†aic Export
2.3 - Industrial Policy
2.3.1 - Laws and Regulations
2.3.2 - Government Funds Available for Solar Energy
2.3.3 - Price Policy for Photovoltaic Power
2.3.4 - Special Projects
2.4 - Future Solar Energy in China
2.4.1 - Development Target
2.4.2 - Development Orientation
2.4.3 - Special Schemes
2.4.3.1 - Photovoltaic Pioneer Program
2.4.3.2 - Other Programs
2.5 - Conclusions
References
3 - Solar Power in Europe: Status and Outlook
3.1 - The Past: Solar Developments in Europe (2000–16)
3.1.1 - Leading European Solar Markets
3.1.2 - Market Segmentation
3.2 - The Future: 5-Year Market Outlook (2017–21)
3.2.1 - Main Reasons for Solar Market Growth in Europe
3.2.2 - Solar Markets’ Growth Scenarios
3.2.3 - European Countries’ Solar Prospects
3.3 - Solar in the European Electricity System
3.3.1 - Inflexible Energy Generation Needs to be Strongly Reduced Between Now and 2030
3.3.2 - Accelerate the Energy Transition via Reliable and Ambitious Long-Term Signals
3.4 - Policy Recommendation for Solar in Europe
3.5 - Conclusions
References
4 - Solar Power in the USA—Status and Outlook
4.1 - Overall US Market Indicators
4.1.1 - Reducing Soft Costs
4.1.2 - Federal Policy
4.2 - The United States as a Patchwork of States
4.2.1 - Leading States
4.3 - US Solar Energy Market Outlook
4.4 - The United States as a Driver of Innovation
4.4.1 - “Profoundly Disconnected”: The Need for Workforce Development and Educator Training
4.4.2 - Technological and Financial Innovations
4.4.3 - System Upgrades
4.4.4 - A Vision for the Future of the US Grid—The Internet of Interoperable Microgrids
References
Further Reading
5 - Sustainable Solar Energy Collection and Storage for Rural Sub-Saharan Africa
5.1 - Introduction
5.2 - Geography
5.3 - The Circular Economy Approach
5.4 - Photovoltaic Technology
5.5 - Energy, and Energy Storage, Needs of Households in Rural Africa
5.6 - Energy Storage—Battery Choices
5.7 - Carbon Footprint and Lifecycle Impact Considerations
5.8 - Resource-Efficiency and Circular Economy
5.8.1 - Critical Materials
5.8.2 - End-of-life Prospects and Compatibility With Circular Economy
5.9 - Future Solar Cell Technologies
5.10 - Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Part 3 - Thermal Solar Energy Technology
6 - Solar Water Heaters
6.1 - Introduction
6.1.1 - The Marketing Situation of Solar Water Heaters
6.1.2 - Driving Forces for the Expansion of the Global Solar Thermal Market
6.1.3 - Existing Barriers to the Diffusion of Global Solar Thermal Market
6.2 - Working Principle of SWH Systems
6.3 - The Classification of SWH Systems
6.3.1 - Passive and Active Systems
6.3.2 - Direct and Indirect Systems
6.3.3 - SWH Systems in Different Solar Collector Configurations
6.3.3.1 - Low Temperature Solar Collectors
6.3.3.2 - High Temperature Solar Collectors
6.3.3.3 - Comparison of the Evacuated-Tube and Flat-Plate Collectors
6.4 - Most Advanced Technologies of SWHs
6.4.1 - SWHs With Phase Change Materials
6.4.2 - SWHs With Loop Heat Pipe
6.4.3 - SWHs With Microchannel Heat Pipe Array
References
7 - Concentrating Solar Thermal Power
7.1 - Introduction
7.2 - Parabolic-Trough Collectors
7.2.1 - Main Components
7.2.2 - Working Fluids for PTC
7.2.3 - Main Applications of PTC
7.3 - Central Receiver Systems
7.3.1 - Main Components
7.4 - Compact Linear Fresnel Concentrators
7.5 - Parabolic Dishes
7.6 - Technology Trends
References
Part 4 - Photo Voltaic Solar Energy
8 - Photovoltaics: The Basics
8.1 - Introduction
8.2 - Light Absorption in Materials and Excess Carrier Generation
8.2.1 - Carrier Generation
8.2.2 - Carrier Recombination
8.2.3 - Excess Carrier Concentration
8.3 - Photovoltaic Effect and Basic Solar Cell Parameters
8.3.1 - Photovoltaic Effect
8.3.2 - I–V Characteristics and Basic Parameters of Photovoltaic Cells
8.3.3 - In-Series and In-Parallel Connection of PV Cells
8.4 - Principles of Solar Cell Construction
8.4.1 - PV Cell Efficiency Limit
8.4.1.1 - Tandem Structures
8.4.2 - Wafer-Based and Thin Film Construction
8.4.3 - Losses in Real PV Cell Structures
8.4.3.1 - Optical Losses
8.4.3.2 - Recombination Losses
8.4.3.3 - Electrical Losses
8.5 - Photovoltaic Modules—Principles and Construction
8.5.1 - PV Modules and Their Characteristics
8.5.2 - PV Module Optical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties
8.5.3 - Local Shading and Hot Spot Formation
References
Further reading
9 - Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell and Module Technology
9.1 - Introduction
9.2 - Semiconductor Silicon
9.2.1 - Semiconductor Silicon Manufacture Technology
9.2.1.1 - The Siemens Method
9.2.1.2 - The Fluidized Bed Reactor Method
9.3 - Crystalline Silicon Wafer Fabrication
9.3.1 - Crystalline Silicon Ingot Fabrication
9.3.1.1 - Silicon Single-Crystal Ingot Fabrication
9.3.1.2 - Multicrystalline Block Fabrication
9.3.2 - The Wafering Process
9.3.3 - Ribbon Silicon
9.4 - Crystalline Silicon PV Cell Design and Fabrication Technology
9.4.1 - BSF Solar Cells
9.4.2 - High Efficiency Cells
9.4.2.1 - PERC and PERL Cells
9.4.2.2 - PERT, TOPCon, and Bifacial Cells
Bifacial Solar Cells
9.4.2.3 - IBC Cells
9.4.2.4 - Heterojunction Technology Cells
9.4.3 - Si Wafer-Based Multijunction Cells
9.5 - Crystalline Si Module Design and Fabrication
9.5.1 - Standard PV Module Fabrication Technology
9.5.2 - Emerging Module Technologies
9.5.2.1 - Shingled Cell Modules
9.5.2.2 - SmartWires Contact Technology
9.5.3 - Module Reliability and Durability
9.6 - Conclusions
References
Further Readings
10 - CdTe Solar Cells
10.1 - Introduction
10.2 - The CdTe Solar Cell: History, Layers, and Processes
10.2.1 - Transparent Conductive Oxide (TCO)
10.2.2 - The Window Layer
10.2.3 - CdTe Absorber Layer
10.2.4 - The Chloride Process
10.2.5 - Back-Contacting
10.2.6 - General CdTe Solar Cell Production Notes
10.3 - Looking Forward—Voltage, Doping, and Substrate Cells
10.3.1 - Substrate Cells
10.3.2 - Open Circuit Voltage Limitations
10.4 - Conclusion
References
11 - An Overview of Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Metal Halide Perovskite Solar Cells
11.1 - Introduction
11.2 - Thin Film Fabrication/Formation
11.2.1 - Single Step Deposition
11.2.2 - Two Step Sequential Deposition
11.2.3 - Two Step Vapor Assisted Deposition
11.2.4 - Thermal Vapor Deposition
11.3 - Perovskite Solar Cell Device Structure
11.3.1 - Mesoporous Scaffold Structure
11.3.2 - Planar Structure
11.4 - Device Optimization
11.4.1 - Solvent to Film Optimization
11.4.2 - Band Gap Optimization
11.4.3 - Electron and Hole Transporting Materials Optimization
11.5 - Stability Issues and Challenges of Perovskite Solar Cells
11.5.1 - Stability Issues
11.5.2 - J–V Hysteresis
11.6 - Summary
References
12 - Organic Photovoltaics
12.1 - Introduction
12.2 - Operating Principles
12.3 - Device Structure
12.4 - Challenges and Opportunities for Improved Performance
12.4.1 - Increasing Power Conversion Efficiency
12.4.2 - Improving Long-Term Stability
12.4.3 - Minimizing the Cost of Materials and Device Fabrication
12.5 - Conclusion
References
13 - Upconversion and Downconversion Processes for Photovoltaics
13.1 - Introduction
13.2 - Upconversion
13.2.1 - Upconversion Materials
13.2.2 - PV Devices With Upconverters
13.2.2.1 - GaAs Solar Cells
13.2.2.2 - Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
13.2.2.3 - Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells
13.2.2.4 - Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
13.2.2.5 - Organic Solar Cells
13.2.2.6 - Perovskite Solar Cells
13.2.3 - Approaches to Increase Upconversion Performance Enhancement
13.2.3.1 - Material Optimization
13.2.3.1.1 - Ln3+-Based Upconverters
13.2.3.1.2 - Organic Upconverters
13.2.3.2 - Material Environment
13.2.3.2.1 - Plasmonics and Photonics
13.2.3.2.2 - Spectral Concentration
13.3 - Downconversion
13.3.1 - Downconversion Materials
13.3.2 - PV Devices With Downconverters
13.3.2.1 - Silicon and GaAs-Based Solar Cells
13.3.2.2 - Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
13.3.2.3 - Organic Solar Cells
13.3.2.4 - Perovskite Solar Cells
13.4 - Conclusions
References
Further Reading
14 - Advanced Building Integrated Photovoltaic/Thermal Technologies
14.1 - Introduction
14.2 - Building Integrated Thermal Electric Roofing System
14.3 - BIPVT Solar Roof
14.3.1 - Design and Manufacture of the Novel FGM Panel
14.3.2 - Assembling of the BIPVT
14.3.3 - Integration of a Multifunctional Roofing System
14.4 - Modeling Procedures and Performance Evaluation of the Multifunctional BIPVT Panel
14.4.1 - Laboratory Testing Setup
14.4.2 - Estimation of Heat Collection
14.4.3 - Estimation of Electricity Generation
14.4.4 - Overall Efficiency and Comparisons With Other Relevant PVT Collectors
14.5 - Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
15 - Integration of PV Generated Electricity into National Grids
15.1 - Introduction: Rapid Growth of the Solar PV Industry
15.2 - Why We Need to Integrate Solar Power into National Grids
15.3 - How Solar PV Fits in
15.4 - Is the Duck Relevant to Solar PV in United Kingdom?
15.5 - Effect of Growth in Small Distributed Installations
15.6 - ‘Nonsynchronous’ Inverter Type Generators Supporting the Network
15.7 - Converter Technology
15.8 - Conclusions
References
16 - Small-Scale PV Systems Used in Domestic Applications
16.1 - Introduction
16.2 - Electrical Characteristics of PV Cells/Modules
16.3 - Features of Converter Topologies in PV Systems
16.3.1 - Electrical Requirements of Grid-Tied Inverters
16.3.2 - Commonly Used Grid-Tied Converter Topologies
16.3.3 - Emerging Converter Topologies
16.3.3.1 - Cascaded Multilevel Modular Integrated Converters in Small-scale Grid-Tied PV Systems [1,4]
16.3.3.2 - Grid-Connected Current Source Inverter With Feed Forward Control [3]
16.4 - Configurations of Grid-Tied PV Systems
16.5 - Issues on PV Systems and Cell and Module Level Failures
16.5.1 - Shading
16.5.2 - Hot Spots
16.5.3 - Micro-cracks
16.5.4 - Delamination and Moisture Ingress
16.5.5 - Snail Trail Contamination
16.5.6 - Interconnects
16.5.7 - Potential Induced Degradation (PID) Effect [5]
16.5.8 - Encapsulate Discoloration
16.6 - Conclusions
References
17 - Energy and Carbon Intensities of Stored Solar Photovoltaic Energy
17.1 - The Need for Storage
17.2 - Key Characteristics for Storage
17.3 - Net Energy Analysis of Storing and Curtailing Solar PV Resources
17.4 - The Carbon Footprint of Storing Solar PV
17.5 - Conclusions
References
18 - Thin Film Photovoltaics
18.1 - Introduction
18.2 - Thin Film Cell Configurations
18.2.1 - Amorphous Silicon
18.2.2 - Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells
18.2.3 - CIGS Solar Cells
18.2.4 - Perovskite
18.3 - Deposition and Growth Techniques
18.4 - Flexible Cell Formations
18.5 - Challenges
18.6 - Conclusions
References
Part 5 - Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
19 - Solar Panels in the Landscape
19.1 - Introduction
19.1.1 - What Is Landscape?
19.2 - Solar Installation Types
19.2.1 - Building-Mounted Panels
19.2.2 - Integrated Materials
19.2.3 - Free-Standing Solar Farms
19.2.4 - Floating Solar Farms
19.3 - Key Visual Elements
19.3.1 - How People Experience Solar Farms
19.3.2 - Impressions of a Solar Farm
19.4 - Environmental Issues in Planning
9.4.1 - Landscape and Visual Effects
9.4.2 - Effects on Land Use
9.4.3 - Other Environmental Issues
19.5 - Offset Mitigation
19.6 - Concluding Remarks
References
20 - Solar Energy Development and the Biosphere
20.1 - Introduction
20.2 - Solar Energy Effectors and Potential Effects on the Environment
20.2.1 - Land Requirements
20.2.2 - Land-Use and Land-Cover Change
20.2.3 - Surface Grading and Vegetation Removal
20.2.4 - Hydrologic Changes and Water Degradation
20.2.5 - Changes in Land-Surface Temperature, Albedo, and Microclimate
20.3 - Ecological Impacts and Responses
20.3.1 - Habitat Fragmentation
20.3.2 - Roads, Transmission Lines, and Fences
20.3.3 - Panels and Mirrors
20.3.4 - Air-Cooled Condensers and High-Energy Flux
20.4 - Summary
References
21 - Energy Return on Energy Invested (EROI) and Energy Payback Time (EPBT) for PVs
21.1 - Introduction
21.2 - Methods of EROI Analysis
21.2.1 - Introduction to Methods of EROI Analysis
21.2.2 - Energy Payback Times
21.2.3 - Overlapping Energy Input Accounting Methods
21.2.3.1 - Confusion in PV EROI Results Caused by Inconsistencies in Objectives and Energy Input Accounting
21.2.4 - Pathways to PV Net Energy Analysis Using CED
21.2.4.1 - EROIel: Energy Output Expressed in Terms of Direct Energy
21.2.4.2 - EROIPE-eq: Energy Output Expressed in Terms of Equivalent Primary Energy
21.2.4.3 - The Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) Metric
21.2.4.4 - The Nonrenewable Cumulative Energy Demand (nr-CED) Metric
21.3 - Results of EROI Analysis of PV Systems, Harmonization and Trends Over Time
21.3.1 - Results of a UK Case Study Comparing PV and Nonrenewable EROIs
21.3.2 - Results From Harmonizing EROI and EPBT Analyses and Trends in the Industry
21.3.3 - Future Possibilities
References
Further Reading
22 - Life Cycle Analysis of Photovoltaics: Strategic Technology Assessment
22.1 - Introduction
22.2 - Life Cycle Analysis Methodology
22.2.1 - Interpretation and Reporting
22.3 - Current Photovoltaic Status
22.3.1 - Major Technologies
22.3.2 - Production Sites and Electricity Mixes
22.4 - Current Photovoltaic Life Cycle Analysis Results
22.4.1 - Fixed-Tilt Ground-Mounted Photovoltaic Systems
22.5 - Technology Roadmaping
22.5.1 - Feedstock and Ingot Growth
22.5.2 - Wafering
22.5.3 - Cell Processing
22.5.4 - Technological Scenarios
22.6 - Prospective Life Cycle Analysis of Future Designs
22.6.1 - Data Collection, Modeling, and Inventory Analysis
22.6.2 - Uncertainty Analysis
22.6.2.1 - Parameter Uncertainty
22.6.2.2 - Scenario Uncertainty
22.7 - Results
22.7.1 - Cells and Modules
22.7.2 - Balance of System
22.8 - Conclusion
References
Part 6 - Economics and Future of Solar Energy
23 - Materials: Abundance, Purification, and the Energy Cost Associated with the Manufacture of Si, CdTe, and CIGS PV
23.1 - Introduction
23.2 - Critical Metals
23.3 - Material Requirements for PV
23.3.1 - Mining and Refining Materials for PV
23.3.2 - Aluminum
23.3.3 - Gallium
23.3.4 - Copper
23.3.5 - Selenium
23.3.6 - Tellurium
23.3.7 - Silicon
23.3.8 - Silver
23.3.9 - Zinc
23.3.10 - Cadmium
23.3.11 - Germanium
23.3.12 - Indium
23.4 - Energy Costs of Materials
23.5 - Conclusion
References
24 - Global Growth Trends and the Future of Solar Power: Leading Countries, Segments, and Their Prospects
24.1 - Introduction
24.2 - Solar Growth Trends
24.3 - Future Market Growth Potential
24.4 - Segmental Growth
24.5 - Industrial Growth
24.6 - Conclusions
References
25 - Optimal Renewable Energy Systems: Minimizing the Cost of Intermittent Sources and Energy Storage
25.1 - Introduction
25.2 - Renewable Energy Microeconomic Considerations
25.3 - Economic Theory of Renewable Energy Intermittency
25.4 - Economics of Renewable Energy Intermittency: Empirical Example from Vermont
25.5 - Extensions and Conclusions
References
index