3rd Generation Biofuels: Disruptive Technologies to Enable Commercial Production

3rd Generation Biofuels
Copyright
Contributors
About the editors
Preface
The choice of algae strain for the biofuel production: Native, genetically modified, and microbial consort
Introduction
Native microalgae for biofuel production
Lipid synthesis pathway in native microalgae
Collection and isolation of microalgae
Screening criteria
Genetically modified microalgae
Specific modifications
Metabolic engineering
Genome editing
Random modifications
Enhanced lipid production by GM microalgae
Public concern about genetically modified strain
Microalgal consortia
Carbon for nitrogen mutualisms
Carbon for other nutrients
Microalgal consortia in production of bioenergy through integrated bioprocesses
Conclusion and future perspective
References
Criteria for the development of culture media applied to microalgae-based fuel production
Introduction
Current stage of microalgae-based fuels
New cultivation media development: The present and future
Cultivation modes and cultivation media development
Negative impacts of cultivation media: How to mitigate
The future of the culture media development: Modeling and aquaculture 4.0
Processing the biomass produced
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Genome editing approaches applied to microalgae-based fuels
Introduction
ZFN: Programmable DNA-binding protein system for genome editing
TALEN: Activator-like effector applicable for genome editing
CRISPR-Cas: RNA-guided DNA endonuclease
Cpf1: A RNA-guided genome editing alternative
Improving the performance of CRISPR-Cas in microalgae
Examples of CRISPR-Cas genome editing for increasing oil content in microalgae
Prospect and challenge
Acknowledgments
References
Biochemical engineering approaches to enhance the production of microalgae-based fuels
Introduction
Fatty acid biosynthesis in microalgae
Manipulation of microalgae fatty acid biosynthesis using biochemical engineering approaches
Physical stress
Electromagnetic or electric fields
Nutritional stress
Exogenous phytohormones
Two-stage cultivation strategy
Fermenters and photobioreactors
Photobioreactors and raceway ponds
Integration of the two-stage cultivation system with operation mode strategies
Conclusion
References
Impact of culture conditions on microalgae-based fuel production
Introduction
State of the art
Raceway ponds vs photo bioreactors
Light intensity
Light ``color´´
Selective starvation for enhanced oil and carbohydrate accumulation
Other factors
Disruptive technological approaches
Recommendations
References
Further reading
Process control strategies applied to microalgae-based biofuel production
Introduction
Why process monitoring and control are important for large-scale microalgal cultivations
Process control variables in cultivation of microalgae
Physical variables
Light intensity
Temperature
Chemical parameters
pH
Dissolved CO2
Dissolved O2
Nutrients
Biological parameters
Cell count, morphology, size, and contaminants
Biomass composition
Photosynthetic quantum yield and efficiency
Tools for real-time monitoring and control of microalgae production processes
Sensors
Sensors for measuring physical variables
Sensors for measuring chemical variables
Ion-sensitive field-effect transistors
Ion selective electrodes
Turbidity sensors
In situ microscopy and flow cytometry
Fluorescence sensors
Infrared spectroscopy
Soft sensors
Controllers
On-off feedback controllers
Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) and proportional-integral (PI) feedback controllers
Fuzzy logic controllers
Artificial neural network-based controllers
Model predictive controllers
Implementations of controller systems
Microcontrollers
Programmable logic controllers
Distributed control systems
Classical hierarchical structure control systems
Fieldbus control system
Networked control system
Knowledge-based control system
Smart sensors and actuators
Smart microalgae cultivation/farming systems
Automation for the continuous cultivation of microalgae
Challenges
Conclusion and future directions
References
Carbon dioxide capture and its use to produce microalgae-based fuels
Introduction
Oxygenic photosynthesis
Role of CO2 in photosynthesis
Mechanism of CO2 concentrators
CO2 and biomass production
Carbon dioxide and microalgae-based biofuels
Biohydrogen
Biodiesel
Biochar
Biofuel jet fuel
Conclusions
References
Wastewater, reclaimed water, and seawater utilization in the production of microalgae-based fuels
Introduction
Wastewater for the production of microalgae for fuel generation
Seawater as a medium for the production of microalgae for fuel generation
Reclaimed water for the production of microalgae to fuel generation
Contribution to the circular economy
Conclusions
References
Unit operations applied for microalgae-based solid-liquid separation
Introduction
Solid-liquid separation processes employed for algae harvesting
Sedimentation
Flotation
Centrifugation
Filtration
Cloth filtration
9.2.4.2 Membranes
Coagulation-flocculation: A method to enhance separation
Metal-based coagulation
Autoflocculation
Bioflocculation
Algal characteristics and the associated influence on separation
Algal cell morphology and physiology
Algal organic matter
The cost of algal cultivation and harvesting
Capital expenditure associated with algal cultivation and harvesting
Operational expenditure associated with the algal harvesting processes
Nonchemical operational expenditure
Chemical operational expenditure
Cost of harvesting process shutdown and inactivity
Unit operation selection
Stage selection for microalgal harvesting
Importance of process parameters on unit operation selection
Influence of the physical characteristics of the feed on unit operation selection
Conclusions
References
Unit operations applied to drying microalgal biomass
Introduction
Unit operations of drying
Moisture ratio and drying rate
Advantages and disadvantages
Disruptive technologies for predrying treatments
Recommendations
Acknowledgment
References
Unit operations applied to cell disruption of microalgae
Introduction
Standard methods
Chemical treatments
Mechanical treatments
Bead milling/beating
Ultrasonication
Microwave
High-pressure homogenization
Enzymatic treatments
Novel techniques
Germination
Autolysis
Viral infection
Applications
Considerations regarding cell-wall characteristics and energy consumption
Future perspective
References
Microalgae biofuels: Engineering-scale process integration approaches
Background
Goals
State-of-the-art
Microalgae-based processes and products: Overview
Process integration approach
Energy integration
Mass integration
Water integration
Disruptive technological approaches
Layout of NPDEAS facility
Recommendations
References
Process intensification of microalgal biofuel production
Introduction to intensified microalgal processing
Intensification via co-cultivation or biofilm techniques
Co-culture of microalgae and yeast
Factors affecting co-culture of microalgae and yeast
Attached microalgae cultivation
Factors affecting attached microalgae
Dual harvesting and cell disruption using ozone-flotation
Microalgae harvesting
Microalgae cell disruption
Ozone pretreatment effect over carbohydrates, fatty acids, and proteins
Carbohydrates
Fatty acids
Proteins
Rapid biofuel production using chemical, biological, or thermal methods
Biodiesel production via in situ transesterification
Bioethanol production via simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
Bio-oil production via thermal or hydrothermal cracking
Options for process intensification in industry
History
Growing algae
Water removal and drying
Conversion of microalgae to biofuel
Perspective and conclusions
References
Biofuels and chemicals from microalgae
Introduction
Current state-of-the-art technologies for extraction and conversion of microalgae
In situ transesterification
Hydrothermal liquefaction
Separation processes after HTL process
Disruptive technological approaches
Extraction of microalgae
Upgrading/conversion HTL-derived products
Selective remediation of aqueous waste to recycle as algae nutrient source
Conclusions and recommendations
References
Biorefinery approaches for integral use of microalgal biomass
Introduction
State of the art in microalgal processing
Biomass recovery
Biomass pretreatment
Product isolation and purification
Integrating processes
Biofuel products
Maximal energy recovery
Maximal profitability
Modeling and simulation as tools for process development
Process simulation
Techno-economic and sensitivity analysis
LCA of biorefineries
Mass culture management and fertilization
Perspectives and conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Topology analysis of the third-generation biofuels
Introduction
State of the art
Topology concept
Microalgae for the biofuel production
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
Bio-oil
Biogas
Technologies for the processing of microalgae for biofuel production
Biofuel topologies
Third-generation biofuels
Second-generation biofuels
Disruptive technological approaches
Topological analysis for biofuel production through sustainability and economic metrics
Recommendations
References
Nanotechnology approaches to enhance the development of biofuels from microalgae
Introduction
Microalgae-mediated biofuel production
Nanoparticles as additives in microalgal biofuel production
Metallic nanoparticles
Magnetic and carbon nanoparticles
Polymeric and other novel nanoparticles
Nanoparticles to improve enzyme kinetics in microalgae
Photocatalytic nanoparticles for microalgal biofuel production
Future perspective
Conclusion
References
Biotechnology advancements in CO2 capture and conversion by microalgae-based systems
Introduction
State of the art
Mechanisms of CO2 capture by microalgae
Factors influencing CO2 sequestration by microalgae
New scientific trends are pointing toward a most promising future of CO2 mitigation by microalgae
Synthetic biology and genetic engineering
New advancements in bioreactor design
Artificial intelligence optimizing strategies for ideal microalgae production systems
Genome sequencing and editing
Identification and selection of strain(s) for scenario-specific conditions
Cultivation systems and biomass conversion
Real-time multifaceted tasks
System maintenance and corrective actions
Commercial opportunities
Recommendations
References
Biodiesel from microalgae
Introduction
Lipids integrated into microalgal cell structures
Stimulating lipid yield and quality
Scaling up microalgae to biodiesel production
Extracting lipids from dewatered or wet microalgal biomass
Transesterification of lipids to produce FAME
Improving lipid yield and quality
Genetically engineering fourth-generation biodiesel
Non-fuel co-products associated with microalgal lipids
Offering wastewater and effluent handling solutions
Conclusions
Declaration
References
Bioethanol from microalgae
Introduction
Microalgae and cultivation systems to produce carbohydrate-rich biomass
Batch and continuous systems
Effluent as a source of nutrients in cultivation systems
Cultivation/harvesting methods
Saccharification methods
Hydrolysis efficiency
Acid hydrolysis
Enzymatic hydrolysis
Alternative processes
Ethanolic fermentation
Hexose and pentose fermentation
Fermentation efficiency
Conclusions and future prospects
References
Further reading
Biomethane from microalgae
Introduction
Biomethane production potential from microalgae
Feature of microalgae biomass in terms of biochemical composition
Factors affecting the biomethane production potential of microalgae
Anaerobic biodegradability of different microalgae strains
Operational parameters affecting anaerobic digestion of microalgae
Anaerobic digestion reactor: Importance of the reactor configuration
Organic loading rate and hydraulic retention time
Anaerobic digestion temperature
Carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio and co-digestion
Scale-up
Disruptive technological approaches
Different pretreatments on microalgae biomass for enhancing the biomethane recovery
Physical pretreatment
Thermal pretreatment
Chemical pretreatment
Biological pretreatment
Nutrient recovery for value-added products
Future research needs for commercialization
Microalgae biomass production in wastewater
Enhancement of anaerobic digestibility of microalgae biomass
Combination of sustainable microalgae technologies
Purification of anaerobic digestate for valorization
Acknowledgments
References
Biohydrogen from microalgae
Introduction
State of the art
Hydrogen production in the photosynthetic pathway
Photosynthesis and hydrogenases
Microalgae-based hydrogen production with light-dependent reactions
Hydrogen production by direct biophotolysis
Hydrogen production by indirect biophotolysis
Common microalgal species and environmental factors involved in hydrogen production by biophotolysis
Microalgal species used for H2 production by biophotolysis
Nutritional and environmental factors affecting hydrogen production by biophotolysis
Photobioreactor configurations used to produce hydrogen by biophotolysis
Hydrogen production by dark fermentation of microalgal biomass
Rationale behind hydrogen production by dark fermentation from the stoichiometric and energetic point of view
Physicochemical parameters affecting hydrogen production of microalgal biomass
Different pretreatments of microalgal biomass to achieve high sugar content hydrolysates
Reactor configurations for hydrogen production by dark fermentation
Disruptive technological approaches
Enhancement strategies for biohydrogen production by biophotolysis
Design and photobioreactor operation to improve H2 production
Genetic engineering and metabolic tools to improve H2 production
Dark fermentation
Schemes for microalgae-based biorefineries
Technoeconomic information
Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
Biobutanol from microalgae
Introduction
State of the art
Disruptive technological approaches
The transportation, biomass costs, and the selection of microalgae
Medium conditions
Selection of substrate
Fermentation types
Separation and purification of biobutanol
Genetic modification and strain selection for fermentation
Pathway modifications
Advanced membrane separation technologies
Other methods
Recommendations
References
Syngas from microalgae
Background
Syngas production via gasification
Parametric effect on syngas production
Syngas clean-up
Particulate matter
Inertial separation
Barrier filtration
Electrostatic separations
Additional technologies
Tar treatment
Thermal cracking
Catalytic cracking
Physical separation
Separation of sulfur compounds
Industrial applications of syngas
Recommendation
References
Volatile organic compounds from microalgae as an alternative for the production of bioenergy
Introduction
Volatile organic compounds from microalgae
Microalgae gaseous biofuel
Microalgae metabolism
Final considerations
Conclusion
References
Biochar from microalgae
Introduction
Microalgal biochar characterization
Physical and structural properties of microalgal biochar
Chemical and nutritional properties of microalgal biochar
Production of microalgal biochar
Microalgal biochar from combustion
Microalgal biochar from pyrolysis
Microalgal biochar from gasification
Microalgal biochar from hydrothermal carbonization
Other thermochemical technologies
Preparation of microalgal biochar before applications
Physical activation
Chemical activation
Other modification methods
Application of microalgal biochar
Physical adsorption
Catalyst and activator
Soil amendment and fertilization
Other applications
Summary and perspectives
References
Production of renewable aviation fuel from microalgae
Introduction
State of the art
Biojet fuel from microalgae oil
Biojet fuel from microalgae biomass
Biorefineries from microalgae
Disruptive technological approaches
Technologies focused on the increasing of microalgae oil
Technologies that improve the oil extraction from microalgae
Technologies that produce renewable aviation fuel from microalgae oil
Technologies that produce renewable aviation fuel from complete microalgae (biomass and oil)
Industrial and pilot projects that produce renewable aviation fuel from microalgae
Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
Direct combustion of microalgae biomass to generate bioelectricity
Introduction
State of the art
Algae as a biomass fuel
Direct combustion technologies
Fixed-bed combustion systems
Fluidized-bed combustion systems
Entrained flow combustion systems
Combustion of microalgae
Thermogravimetric analysis
Laboratory-scale combustion tests
Experimental
Materials and methods
CFB combustor and test procedure
Thermogravimetric analysis
Results and discussion
Combustion characteristics in a CFB combustor
TGA
Conclusions
Recommendations
References
Phototrophic microbial fuel cells
Microbial fuel cells and photosynthesis: PMFC, living within the immediate carbon cycle
Introduction
Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS)
Primary biomass
Secondary or tertiary biomass
Climate and environment
Standard MFC
Open-to-air, single-chamber MFC
Proton exchange membranes
Large and small MFC
Membraneless MFC
Microfluidic MFC (MMFC)
Organic feedstock and inocula
Acclimation of the inoculum
Transplanting successive generations of electroactive species
Electrodes
Thick and thin electroactive biofilms
Thick electroactive biofilms
Thin electroactive biofilms
Microalgae
Photobioreactors (PBRs)
Algal cell biofilms
Algal oxygen production
Photo-microbial fuel cells (PMFCs)
Anodic PMFC
Algal biomass as feedstock
Cathodic PMFC
Summary
References
Energy policies in the context of third-generation biofuels
Introduction
Evolution of biofuels
Third-generation biofuel
Biofuel policy across the world
United States
China
Brazil
India
European Union
Russia
Policies regarding third-generation biofuel
Conclusion
References
Global profile and market potentials of the third-generation biofuels
Introduction
Global profile of third-generation biofuels
Algae biomass and biofuels production and utilization: Global outlook
Economics of algae-based biofuels: Drivers to algae biofuel market
Market potentials of third-generation biofuels
Future projections of the global algae biofuel market
Conclusions
References
Third-generation biofuels and food security
Introduction
Food vs fuel dilemma
Land-use change
Third-generation biofuels
Impact of third-generation biofuels on food security
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Bioeconomy of microalgae-based fuels
Introduction
The green business model as a framework for the algae industry
Algae biofuel and the environment
Land competition
Emissions
Economic viability of algae biofuels
Optimizing production systems and products
Fostering economic viability through biorefineries
Social sustainability
Conclusions
References
Cost-benefit analysis of third-generation biofuels
Introduction
Feedstocks and biofuels in third generation
Techniques for algae cultivation
Open raceway ponds
Closed photobioreactors
Types of algal biofuels
Techno-economic analysis
Different levels of TEA at pre-commercial stages
Steps involved in the TEA
Benefits of cost analysis
Models and tools for cost-benefit analysis
ASPEN plus
Process simulation in ASPEN plus
Economical analysis in ASPEN plus
UniSim design
Methods of cost calculations
Different types of algal biofuel productions and cost analysis
Microalgae to biodiesel production
Estimation of capital cost and operating cost annually
Cost-benefit evaluation
Bioethanol from microalgae
Life-cycle cost analyzing process
Estimated cost for the bioethanol
Biogas from microalgae
TEA analysis
Sensitivity analysis
Conclusion
References
Environmental sustainability metrics and indicators of microalgae-based fuels
Introduction
Current LCA of microalgal biofuels
Sustainability targets in LCA
Integration of distance-to-targets methodology into LCA
Establishing sustainability targets
LCA results for biodiesel from freshwater autotrophic microalgae compared with the conservation of natural capital, ...
References
Exergy analysis of the third-generation biofuels
Exergy concept
Exergy components
Exergy analysis
Exergetic variables
Exergy analysis for production process of third-generation biofuels
Exergy analysis of syngas production from microalgae
Exergy analysis for third-generation biofuel utilization
References
Synthetic Genomics: Intellectual property, innovation policy, and advanced biofuels
Introduction
State-of-the-art: Synthetic Genomics
Patent law and biofuels
Patent landscapes of biofuels
Patent litigation over biofuels
Patent exceptions and biofuels
Secondary forms of intellectual property
Trademark law
Consumer law and advertising regulation
Trade secrets and confidential information
Disruptive technological approaches
Recommendations/conclusion
References
Socioeconomic aspects of third-generation biofuels
Introduction
Biofuel generations and production
Biofuel generations
Biofuel challenges
Algal biofuels
Production of algal biofuels
Economics and challenges of algal biofuels
Socioeconomic aspects of biofuels
Social sustainability
Land and socioeconomic aspects
Employment and income
Food security and society
Costs and prices
Gender and culture
Public acceptance
Influences and factors
Public attitudes
Social norms
Social acceptance
Role of experts
Perceptions of biofuels
Biofuel indicators
Empirical research on public acceptance of biofuels
Environmental aspects and sustainability
Atmosphere
Greenhouse gas emissions
Land
Deforestation
Ecosystems and biodiversity
Water quantity and quality
Wastes and recycling
Energy
Health and safety
Aesthetics and sustainability
Ethical aspects
Food
Environmental injustice
Policies and ethics
Policy and geopolitical aspects
Policies
Countries and policies
Security and geopolitical aspects
Socioeconomic security
Ecological security
Food security
Transportation security
Energy security
Other geopolitical considerations
Discussion and conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Social acceptance of third-generation biofuels
Introduction
Defining social acceptance
Definition of social acceptance
The triangle of social acceptance
Adjusting the triangle of social acceptance to the biofuel context
Socio-political acceptance
Previous research on biofuel socio-political acceptance
Socio-political acceptance and awareness of biofuels
Determinants of socio-political acceptance
Socio-political acceptance of third-generation biofuels
Actions toward socio-political acceptance of biofuels
Community acceptance
Determinants of community acceptance
Previous research on biofuel community acceptance
Community acceptance of third-generation biofuels
Actions toward community acceptance of biofuels
Prevention and mitigation of adverse effects
Generation of benefits for local communities
Community engagement practices
Determining public engagement
Assessment of community engagement practices
Market acceptance
Previous research on biofuel market acceptance
Determinants of biofuels market acceptance
Biofuel market acceptance: Willingness to become a supplier or producer
Market acceptance of third-generation biofuels
Actions toward market acceptance of biofuels
Conclusions
References
Production of microalgae on source-separated human urine
Introduction
Urine collection systems
Microalgae strain selection
Monoculture systems
Mixed culture systems
Microalgae cultivation systems
Suspended cell growth
Attached cell growth
Microalgal reactors
Open pond cultivation
Photobioreactor
Parameters impacting performance
pH
Light
Temperature
Carbon source
Nutrient requirement
Hydraulic retention time (HRT)
Need for dilution
Operation of pilot reactors
Start-up
Maintenance and regular analysis
Concluding remarks and perspectives
References
Practical guide to algal biomass production: What can we learn from past successes and failures?
Introduction
Phytoplankton cultivation
Species and ecology
Cell density
Light
Temperature
Nutrient availability
pH
Successes and failures during outdoor phytoplankton cultivation in ponds
Food production
Biofuels production
Wastewater treatment
Constraints during commercial cultivation
Importance of location
Other constraints
Managing biological risks
Detection and identification of grazers and pathogens
General operational practices for predator and pathogen control
Regulatory aspects
Conclusions and recommendations
References
Challenges for microalgae cultivation in sugarcane processing wastewater (vinasse) for biodiesel production: From the bench to pilot scale
Sugarcane vinasse
Studies pre-scaling for microalgal lipid productivity from vinasse
Experiences and challenges of sugarcane vinasse microalgae cultivation in pilot-scale bioreactor
Conclusions and outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Hybrid photobioreactors: The success-to-failure experiences on pilot scale
Background
Hybrid photobioreactor-A framework
Plant pilot hybrid photobioreactor
General plant description
Hybrid photobioreactor operation
Failures and successes on photobioreactors-Critical review
Project criteria
Illumination system
Geographic position
Knowledgexknow-how-Current microalgal scenario
Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
The experiences of success and failure in the pilot and real-scale photosynthetic biogas production
Introduction
Biogas production from anaerobic digestion process
Photosynthetic biogas upgrading with microalgae
Fundamentals of photosynthetic biogas upgrading
Parameters influencing process performance
Process configuration
Cultivation broth pH and alkalinity
Liquid-to-biogas ratio in the absorption column
Liquid to biogas flow configuration in the absorption column
Temperature
CO2 and H2S removal
Process scale-up
Life cycle assessment of photosynthetic biogas upgrading
Techno-economic analysis of photosynthetic biogas upgrading
Capital costs
Operating costs
Incomes
Final considerations
Acknowledgments
References
Best practices for bio-crude oil production at pilot scale using continuous flow reactors
Background: Developing larger-scale hydrothermal liquefaction reactor systems
State of the art of algae HTL for bio-crude oil production
Significance and history of commercializing algae HTL processes
Challenges for transitioning from batch to continuous reactors
Potential types of continuous reactors
State of the art for continuous plug flow reactors
Reactor systems at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
CRS at PNNL
Bench-scale CSTR system for algae HTL at PNNL
Bench-scale CSTR-PFR system at PNNL
MHTLS at PNNL
Reactor systems at Aarhus University
Bench-scale CRS at Aarhus University
Pilot-scale CRS reactor at Aarhus University
Pilot-scale HTL reactor system at NMSU
Conclusions and recommendations
Technical limitations and potential solutions for pilot-scale continuous flow HTL reactor systems
Posttreatments: Phase separation of bio-crude oil and aqueous phase
Filtration of char from product stream
Heat and mass integration
Other problems
Upgrading bio-crude oil
Recycling and upgrading of the aqueous phase
Economic considerations based on pilot-scale continuous flow reactors
References
Index
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