3D Printing in Oral Health Science: Applications and Future Directions

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
1: An Introduction to Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing in Oral Health Science
1.1 What Is 3D Printing (3DP)?
1.2 How Does 3D Printing Process Work?
1.2.1 3D Digital Model Acquisition
1.2.2 3D Digital Image Processing
1.2.3 The 3D Printing
1.2.4 Post-processing
1.3 Brief History of 3D Printing Development
1.4 Contemporary Applications and Limitations of 3D Printing in Oral Health Science
1.5 Summary
References
2: Principles and Applications of Various 3D Scanning Methods for Image Acquisition for 3D Printing Applications in Oral Health Science
2.1 Noninvasive, Nonionizing Surface Imaging
2.1.1 Intraoral Scanning
2.1.1.1 An Introduction to Intraoral Scanners Including Its Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages and Disadvantages
2.1.1.2 Various Intraoral (IOS) Scanning Technologies and Principles
Tabletop vs. Intraoral Scanners (Fig. 2.1)
2.1.1.3 Accuracy of Intraoral Scanning Technology
In Vitro Trueness (Fig. 2.5a)
In Vivo Trueness (Fig. 2.5b)
Precision
Effect of Software Versions on Intraoral Scanner Accuracy
2.1.1.4 The Various Commercially Available Intraoral Scanners
2.1.1.5 Application of Intraoral Scanning in Various Fields of Dentistry Including 3D Printing
Digital Orthodontics
3D Printed Dentures (Fig. 2.11)
Dental Implants (Fig. 2.12)
2.1.2 Desktop Scanning
2.1.2.1 An Introduction of Desktop Scanning Including Advantages and Disadvantages
2.1.2.2 Technical Characteristics of Some Commercially Available Desktop Scanners
2.1.2.3 Application of Desktop Scanning in Various Field of Dentistry Including 3D Printing
2.1.3 Facial Scanning
2.1.3.1 An Introduction to Facial Scanning Including Advantages and Disadvantages
2.1.3.2 Various Facial Scanning Technologies
2.1.3.3 Accuracy of Facial Scanning Technology
2.1.3.4 Technical Characteristics of Some Commercially Available Facial Scanning Devices
2.1.3.5 Application of Facial Scanning in Various Fields of Dentistry
2.2 Ionizing Surface Imaging
2.2.1 Cone Beam Computed Tomography Imaging
2.2.1.1 Basic Principle of CBCT Imaging
2.2.1.2 3D Printing with CBCT Imaging
2.2.1.3 Advantages of CBCT Over CT
2.2.1.4 Limitations of CBCT
2.2.1.5 Application of CBCT Data for 3D Printing in Various Field of Dentistry
References
3: Commonly Used 3D Printing Technologies in Oral Health Science
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Brief History
3.3 Basic Terminologies
3.3.1 2D Printing
3.3.2 3D Printing
3.3.3 Additive Manufacturing
3.3.4 Subtractive Manufacturing (Computer-Aided Manufacturing or Milling)
3.3.5 Intraoral Scanning
3.3.6 Desktop Scanning
3.3.7 STL File (Stereolithographic File or Standard Tessellation Language File)
3.3.8 Stereolithography (SLA)
3.3.9 Stereophotogrammetry
3.3.10 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
3.3.11 Resolution
3.3.11.1 Horizontal Resolution
3.3.11.2 Vertical Resolution
3.3.12 Accuracy
3.4 Various 3D Printing Technologies for Oral Health Applications: Principles and Applications
3.4.1 Stereolithography (SLA)
3.4.2 Digital Light Processing (DLP)
3.4.3 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
3.4.4 Inkjet 3D Printing/PolyJet Photopolymerization (PPP)
3.4.5 Selective Laser Melting (SLM) and Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
3.4.6 Electron-Beam Melting (EBM)
3.4.7 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
3.5 Commonly Used 3D Printers in Different Branches of Oral Health Science
3.5.1 Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
3.5.2 Orthodontics
3.5.3 Implantology and Prosthodontics
3.5.4 Restorative Dentistry
3.5.5 Endodontics
3.5.6 Periodontics
3.6 Summary and Key Points
References
4: An Overview of 3D Printable Materials for Dental and Craniofacial Applications
4.1 Introduction to 3D Printed Materials
4.2 Classification of 3D Printing Materials
4.2.1 Liquid-Based Materials
4.2.2 Powder-Based Materials
4.2.3 Solid-Based Materials
4.2.4 AM Technologies and Materials Matrix
4.3 Digital Dentistry with 3D Printed Materials: A Broad Perspective
4.3.1 Prominent Use Cases for Dental Applications in Additive Manufacturing
4.3.1.1 Oral Maxillofacial Surgery
4.3.1.2 Prosthodontics
4.3.1.3 Orthodontics
4.3.1.4 Endodontics
4.3.1.5 Periodontics
4.3.2 Factors for Adopting 3D Printed Materials in Digital Dentistry
4.4 Liquid-Based Materials
4.4.1 Introduction to Liquid Material-Based 3D Printing Technologies
4.4.1.1 Stereolithography (SLA)
4.4.1.2 Material Jetting (MJ)
4.4.1.3 Digital Light Processing (DLP)
4.4.2 Dental Applications of Liquid-Based Materials
4.4.2.1 Clear Aligners
4.4.2.2 Splints and Occlusal Guards
4.4.2.3 Digital Dentures
4.4.2.4 Crown and Bridges
4.4.2.5 Castable Wax
4.4.2.6 Impression Trays
4.4.2.7 Surgical Guides
4.4.2.8 Indirect Bonding Trays
4.4.2.9 Gingiva Masks
4.5 Powder-Based Materials
4.5.1 Introduction to Powder Material-Based 3D Printing Technologies
4.5.1.1 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
4.5.1.2 Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)
4.5.1.3 Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) and Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
4.5.2 Dental Applications of Powder-Based Materials
4.5.2.1 Crowns and Bridges
4.5.2.2 Oral Maxillofacial Implants
4.5.2.3 Dental and Aligner Models
4.6 Solid-Based Materials
4.6.1 Introduction to Solid Material-Based 3D Printing Technologies
4.6.1.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
4.6.2 Dental Applications of Solid Materials
4.6.2.1 Dental and Anatomical Models
4.7 Advancements in Materials for Oral Healthcare
4.7.1 Biomaterials with AM for Dental Applications
4.7.2 3D Printed Ceramics for Dental Applications
4.7.3 Other Novel Materials: PEEK, Nitinol
4.8 Summary
References
5: Fundamentals of Computer-Aided Design (CAD) in Dental Healthcare: From Basics to Beyond
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 A Brief History of Computer-Aided Designing and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
5.2 CAD/CAM Workflow in Dentistry
5.2.1 Open vs. Closed Systems
5.2.2 3D File Formats
5.2.3 Chairside vs. Laboratory CAD/ CAM
5.3 3D Surface Data Acquisition for Computer-Aided Designing
5.3.1 Laboratory Desktop Scanners
5.3.2 Chairside Intraoral Scanners
5.3.3 Scanning of Edentulous Jaws
5.4 Computer-Aided Designing (CAD) for Dental Applications
5.4.1 Exocad
5.4.2 3Shape
5.4.3 CEREC Software and inLab CAD Software
5.4.4 Implant Planning Software
5.4.5 Virtual Articulator
5.4.6 Jaw Motion Tracking
5.4.7 Digital Smile Design
5.4.8 Digital Orthodontics
5.4.9 Digital Denture Design
5.5 Computer-Aided Manufacturing for Dental Applications
5.5.1 Chairside vs. Laboratory CAM
5.5.2 Dry and Wet Milling
5.5.3 Material Processing
5.6 Summary
References
6: 3D Printing and Its Applications in Maxillofacial Surgery
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Virtual Surgical Planning (VSP)
6.3 3 Dimensional Printing (3D Printing)
6.4 Types of 3D-Printed Models
6.4.1 Training Models
6.4.2 Planning Models
6.4.3 Simulation Models
6.4.4 Patient-Specific Surgical Guides
6.5 Patient-Specific Implants (Custom Implants)
6.6 Limitations and Areas of Research
6.7 Future Perspectives and Summary
References
7: Applications of 3D Printing in Periodontal Tissue Regeneration
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Methodology
7.2.1 Protocol
7.2.2 Literature Search Strategy
7.2.3 Selection Criteria for Inclusion/Exclusion of Studies
7.2.4 Data Extraction
7.2.5 Quality Assessment of Animal Studies
7.2.6 Outcomes Evaluation
7.3 Results
7.3.1 Animal Studies
7.3.1.1 Study Selection
7.3.1.2 Study Characteristics
7.3.1.3 Risk of Bias
7.3.2 Human Studies
7.4 Discussion
7.4.1 Overview of Reported Studies
7.4.2 Scaffold Materials and Design
7.4.3 Biomolecules
7.4.4 Printing Technologies
7.4.5 Periodontal Tissue Regeneration
7.4.6 Merits and Demerits
7.4.7 Summary and Future Prospects
References
8: Contemporary Applications of 3D Printing in Prosthodontics
8.1 3D Printing Applications in Prosthodontics
8.2 3D Printing for Complete Denture Fabrication
8.2.1 Procedural Details of 3D Printing in Removable Complete Dental Prosthodontics
8.2.1.1 Clinical Visit I: Impression Making (Two-Staged or Single-Staged) and Bite Registration
Laboratory Procedure I
Step 1: Preparation of Virtual Study Models
Step 2: Designing of Denture
Step 3: Nesting and Incorporation of Supports
Step 4: Printing
Step 5: Post-processing
Step 6: Assembly
Step 9: Post-cure
8.2.1.2 Clinical Visit II
Laboratory Procedure II
8.2.1.3 Clinical Visit III
Take-Home Points Regarding 3D Printed Removable Complete Denture
8.3 Fixed Prosthodontics
8.3.1 3D Printed Casts and Dies
8.3.2 Metal Frameworks of Tooth-Supported and Implant-Borne FDPs
8.3.2.1 Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
8.3.2.2 Electron Beam Melting
8.3.3 Prosthesis Fabricated in Ceramics and Zirconia
8.3.4 Provisional Crowns/Bridges Fabrication by 3D Printing
8.4 3D Printing in Implant Dentistry
8.4.1 Surgical Guide/Template and Models
8.4.2 Implant Abutments and Subperiosteal Implants
8.5 Maxillofacial Prosthesis Fabricated by 3D Printing
8.5.1 Extraoral Defects (Facial Prosthesis and Cranial Implants)
8.5.2 Intraoral Defects (Mandibular and Mandibular)
8.6 Metal-Based Partial Dentures
8.6.1 Accuracy of Metal Printed Partial Dentures
8.6.2 Retentive Force of AM Printed Clasps
8.6.3 Internal Porosity and Surface Roughness
8.6.4 Patient Satisfaction
8.7 Occlusal Splints and Miscellaneous Appliances
8.7.1 Fabrication of Splints, Overlays, and Interim Appliances by AM
8.7.2 Appraisal of Properties of Appliances Fabricated by AM
8.8 Summary
References
9: 3D-Printed Surgical Positioning Rib Graft Jig in Combined Orthodontic-Surgical Management of Pruzansky/Kaban Type IIB and Type III Hemifacial Microsomia
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Three-Dimensional Planning and Printing
9.3 The Surgical Technique
9.4 The Orthodontic Technique
9.5 Discussion
9.6 Summary
References
10: Bioprinting Applications in Craniofacial Regeneration
10.1 Introduction
10.2 3D Bioprinting Process
10.2.1 Pre-bioprinting Phase
10.2.2 Bioprinting Phase
10.2.3 Post-bioprinting Phase
10.3 3D Bioprinting Armamentarium
10.3.1 Cellular Component
10.3.1.1 Single Cells
10.3.1.2 Multicellular Constructs
10.3.2 Biomaterials
10.3.2.1 Natural Materials
10.3.2.2 Synthetic Materials
10.3.2.3 Bioactive Ceramics and Cements
10.3.2.4 Metals
10.3.2.5 Hybrids and Composites
10.3.3 Regulators
10.4 3D Bioprinter Technology
10.4.1 Inkjet 3D Bioprinting
10.4.2 Light-Assisted 3D Bioprinting
10.4.3 Extrusion 3D Bioprinting
10.5 3D Bioprinting Clinical Applications
10.5.1 Dental Pulp and Whole-Tooth Regeneration
10.5.2 Periodontal Regeneration
10.5.3 Craniofacial and Maxillofacial Regeneration
10.5.3.1 Craniomaxillofacial Bone
10.5.3.2 Cartilage
10.5.3.3 Salivary Gland
10.5.3.4 Nerve
10.6 Limitations and Areas of Research
10.7 Future Perspectives and Summary
References
11: 3D-Printed Metal Implants for Maxillofacial Restorations
11.1 Maxillofacial and Orbital Restoration
11.1.1 Introduction
11.1.2 Maxillofacial Restoration
11.1.3 Orbital Reconstruction and Restoration
11.1.4 Current Challenges
11.2 Design of Patient-Customized Maxillofacial Implants
11.2.1 Maxillofacial Imaging and Modeling
11.2.2 Implant Design Considerations
11.2.3 Design Verification and Validation
11.3 Fabrication of Customized Implants
11.3.1 Biocompatible Materials
11.3.2 Metal 3D Printing of Implants
11.3.3 Post-processing of Implants
11.3.4 Inspection and Testing
11.4 Case Studies
11.4.1 Maxillofacial Restoration
11.4.2 Orbital Restoration
11.5 Regulations and Future
11.5.1 Regulatory Landscape
11.5.2 Future Trends
References
12: 3D Printing in Endodontics
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Guided Endodontic Access
12.3 Guided Endodontic Microsurgery
12.4 Tooth Models for Education, Training and Research
12.5 Autotransplantation
12.6 Regenerative Endodontics
12.7 Summary
References
13: 3D Printing: Limitations, Safety, and Regulatory Considerations for Oral Health Science
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Role of 3D Printing in Digital Dentistry Workflow
13.1.2 Emergence of 3D Printing Technologies and Its Procedure
13.1.3 Clinical Applications of 3D Printing in Oral Health Science
13.1.3.1 3D-Printed Devices in Prosthodontics
13.1.3.2 Orthodontics and Invisible Aligner
13.1.3.3 Periodontal Tissue Constructs: Scaffolds
13.2 Limitations of 3D Printing in Dentistry
13.3 Pros and Cons of 3D Printing in Dentistry
13.3.1 Pros of 3D Printing in Dentistry
13.3.1.1 Comfortable Experience for Patients
13.3.1.2 Time-Saving
13.3.1.3 Cost-Effective
13.3.1.4 Accuracy and Precision
13.3.1.5 Superior Aesthetics
13.3.2 Cons of 3D Printing in Dentistry
13.3.2.1 Environmental Impacts and Occupational Health
13.3.2.2 Limit Options of 3D Printing Materials
13.3.2.3 Changing the Role of Dental Technician in Dentistry Workflow
13.4 Safety of 3D Printing in Dentistry
13.4.1 Risk of Fire and Burn
13.4.2 Pinch Points Injuries
13.4.3 Scraper Blades
13.4.4 Electric Shocks from Printer
13.4.5 Removing Support Structures from Finished Prints
13.4.6 Dangers from Materials: Health Impacts from Ultrafine Particles (UFPs) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
13.5 Regulatory Issues in 3D Printing in Dentistry: International and National Perspective
13.5.1 The United States
13.5.2 EU
13.5.3 China
13.5.4 Japan
13.5.5 India
13.6 3D Printing in Dental Training and Education
13.6.1 Benefits
13.6.2 Applications of 3D Printing in Education Today
13.6.3 Dental Education in the Future
13.7 Future Trend of 3D Printing in Dentistry
13.8 Summary
References
14: Future of 3D Printing in Oral Health Sciences
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Future of 3D Printing in Prosthetic and Restorative Dentistry
14.2.1 Fixed Restorations
14.2.2 Dental Implants
14.2.3 Dentures
14.3 Future of 3D Printing in Orthodontics
14.3.1 In-House Aligners
14.3.2 Presurgical Orthopedics
14.3.3 3D Printing in Conventional Orthodontics
14.4 3D Printing in Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery
14.4.1 Orthognathic Surgery
14.4.2 Patient-Specific Implants and Plates
14.4.3 Scaffolds for Bone Regeneration
14.5 Dental Education and Training
14.6 Low-Cost Digital Workflow
14.7 Metamaterials and 4D Printing
14.8 Summary
References