3D Bioprinting and Nanotechnology in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

3D Bioprinting and Nanotechnology in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
1 Nanotechnology: A Toolkit for Cell Behavior
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 NANOBIOMATERIALS FOR TISSUE REGENERATION
1.2.1 CARBON NANOBIOMATERIALS
1.2.1.1 Carbon Nanotubes
1.2.1.2 Carbon Nanofibers
1.2.1.3 Graphene
1.2.2 SELF-ASSEMBLING NANOBIOMATERIALS
1.2.2.1 Self-Assembling Nanotubes
1.2.2.2 Self-Assembling Nanofibers
1.2.3 POLYMERIC AND CERAMIC NANOBIOMATERIALS
1.2.3.1 Polymeric Nanobiomaterials
1.2.3.2 Ceramic Nanobiomaterials and Ceramic-Polymer Nanocomposites
1.3 3D NANO/MICROFABRICATION TECHNOLOGY FOR TISSUE REGENERATION
1.3.1 3D NANOFIBROUS AND NANOPOROUS SCAFFOLDS FOR TISSUE REGENERATION
1.3.1.1 Electrospun Nanofibrous Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration
1.3.1.2 Other 3D Nanofibrous/Nanoporous Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration
1.3.2 3D PRINTING OF NANOMATERIAL SCAFFOLDS FOR TISSUE REGENERATION
1.3.2.1 3D Printing Techniques for Tissue Regeneration
1.3.2.2 3D Printing of Nanomaterial Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration
1.4 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Acknowledgments
Questions
References
2 Bioprinting of Biomimetic Tissue Models for Disease Modeling and Drug Screening
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Current 3D Bioprinting Approaches to Build Biomimetic Tissue Models
2.2.1 Current 3D Bioprinting Technology
2.2.1.1 Inkjet-Based Bioprinting
2.2.1.2 Extrusion-Based Bioprinting
2.2.1.3 Light-Based Bioprinting
2.2.1.3.1 TPP-Based Bioprinting
2.2.1.3.2 DLP-Based Bioprinting
2.2.2 Cell Source and Preparation
2.2.3 Biomaterial Choice
2.3 Drug Screening and Disease Modeling Applications in Various Organs
2.3.1 Liver Models
2.3.2 Cardiac and Skeletal Muscle Models
2.3.2.1 Cardiac Muscle
2.3.2.2 Skeletal Muscle Models
2.3.3 Cancer Models
2.4 Challenges and Future Outlook
Acknowledgments
Declaration of Interests
References
3 3D BIOPRINTING TECHNIQUES
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definition and Principles of 3D Bioprinting
3.3 3D Bioprinting Technologies
3.3.1 Ink-Jet-Based Bioprinting
3.3.2 Pressure-Assisted Bioprinting
3.3.3 Laser-Assisted Bioprinting
3.3.4 Solenoid Valve-Based Printing
3.3.5 Acoustic-Jet Printing
3.4 Challenges and Future Development of 3D Bioprinting
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 The Power of CAD/CAM Laser Bioprinting at the Single-Cell Level: Evolution of Printing
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Direct Contact Versus Direct Write for Single-Cell Printing
4.2 Basics of Laser-Assisted Printing: Overview of Systems and Critical Ancillary Materials
4.2.1 Laser-Assisted Cell Transfer System Components
4.2.2 Absorbing Film-Assisted Laser-Induced Forward Transfer
4.2.3 Matrix-Assisted Pulsed-Laser Evaporation Direct Write
4.2.4 Ancillary Materials
4.3 Matrix-Assisted Pulsed-Laser Evaporation Direct-Write Mechanistics
4.3.1 Modeling Cellular Droplet Formation
4.3.1.1 Modeling Bubble Formation-Induced Process Information
4.3.1.2 Modeling Laser-Matter Interaction Induced Thermoelastic Stress
4.3.2 Modeling of Droplet Landing Process
4.4 Postprocessing Cell Viability and Function
4.5 Case Studies and Applications Illustrating the Importance of Single-Cell Deposition
4.5.1 Isolated-Node, Single-Cell Arrays
4.5.2 Network-Level, Single-Cell Arrays
4.5.3 Next-Generation Single-Cell Arrays: Integrated, Computation-Driven Analysis
4.5.4 Example of Single-Cell Array via Matrix-Assisted Pulsed-Laser Evaporation Direct Write
4.5.5 Laser Direct Write for Neurons
4.5.5.1 Neural Development
4.5.5.2 Engineered Circuits
4.5.5.3 Nonneuronal Interactions
4.5.5.4 Outlook
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Laser Direct-Write Bioprinting: A Powerful Tool for Engineering Cellular Microenvironments
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Spatial Influences of the Cellular Microenvironment
5.1.2 Overview of Printing Techniques for Engineering Cellular Microenvironments
5.1.3 Laser Direct-Write Overview
5.2 Materials in Laser Direct-Write
5.2.1 Material Properties Influencing Cellular Microenvironments
5.2.2 Matrigel-Based Laser Direct-Write
5.2.3 Gelatin-Based Laser Direct-Write
5.2.4 Dynamic Release Layers
5.2.5 Additional Hydrogels Used for Printing and the Receiving Substrate
5.2.6 Nonhydrogel Receiving Substrates and Synergistic Technologies
5.3 Laser Direct-Write Applications in 2D
5.4 Laser Direct-Write Applications in 3D
5.4.1 Microenvironments in 3D
5.4.2 Layer-By-Layer Approaches
5.4.3 Laser Direct-Write Microbeads
5.4.4 Fabrication of Core-Shelled Microenvironments
5.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
Acknowledgments
Questions
References
6 Bioink Printability Methodologies for Cell-Based Extrusion Bioprinting
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Definition of Printability
6.2.1 Consideration on Novel Bioink Development
6.2.2 Measures of Printability
6.3 Relationships Between Printing Outcomes and Rheological Properties
6.3.1 Extrudability
6.3.2 Filament Classification
6.3.3 Shape Fidelity
6.3.4 Impact of Cell Density on Printing Outcomes
6.4 Relationships Between Printing Outcomes and Process Parameters
6.4.1 Process Parameters
6.4.2 Improving Printability by Process Parameters
6.5 Models for Printability
6.6 Current Limitations
6.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Questions
References
7 Hydrogels for Bioprinting
7.1 Hydrogels in Bioprinting
7.1.1 Natural Hydrogel
7.1.1.1 Collagen
7.1.1.2 Gelatin
7.1.1.3 Fibrin
7.1.1.4 Alginate
7.1.1.5 Chitosan and Chitin
7.1.1.6 Hyaluronic Acid
7.1.1.7 Decellularized Extracellular Matrix
7.1.2 Synthetic Hydrogel
7.1.2.1 Poly(2-Hydroxyethyl Methacrylate)
7.1.2.2 Poly(vinyl alcohol)
7.1.2.3 Poly(ethylene glycol)
7.1.2.4 Poly(lactic acid)
7.1.2.5 Poloxamers
7.1.3 Bioinspired Synthetic Hydrogel
7.2 Considerations for Using Hydrogel in Bioprinting
7.2.1 General Consideration
7.2.1.1 Biocompatibility
7.2.1.2 Water Content
7.2.1.3 Swelling Behavior
7.2.1.4 Solute Transportation
7.2.1.5 Degradation
7.2.2 Technology Specific Consideration
7.2.2.1 Material Extrusion
7.2.2.1.1 Material Consideration
7.2.2.1.2 Process Consideration
7.2.2.2 Material Jetting
7.2.2.2.1 Material Consideration
7.2.2.2.2 Process Consideration
7.2.2.3 Vat Polymerization
7.2.2.3.1 Material Consideration
7.2.2.3.2 Process Consideration
7.3 Strategies Used in Hydrogel-Based Bioprinting
7.3.1 Tuning Rheology of Bioink
7.3.2 Inducing Crosslinking during Bioprinting
7.3.3 Crosslinking after Bioprinting
7.3.4 Bioprinting with Support
7.3.5 Hybrid Bioprinting
7.4 Perspective and Outlook
References
8 4D Printing: 3D Printing of Responsive and Programmable Materials
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 RESPONSIVE AND PROGRAMMABLE MATERIALS FOR 4D PRINTING
8.2.1 SHAPE-MEMORY POLYMERS
8.2.2 RESPONSIVE SHAPE-CHANGING POLYMERS AND THEIR COMPOSITES
8.3 REALIZATION OF 4D PRINTING
8.3.1 4D PRINTING BASED ON FUSION DEPOSITION MODELING
8.3.2 4D PRINTING BY DIRECT INK WRITING
8.3.3 4D PRINTING BY PHOTOPOLYMERIZATION
8.4 APPLICATIONS OF 4D PRINTING
8.4.1 BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS
8.4.1.1 Tissue Engineering
8.4.1.2 Implantable Devices
8.4.2 SOFT ROBOTS
8.4.3 FLEXIBLE ELECTRONICS
8.4.4 FOOD PROCESSING
8.5 CONCLUSION AND PROSPECTIVE
QUESTIONS
References
9 Blood Vessel Regeneration
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Additive Manufacturing
9.1.2 Important Proteins for Vasculature
9.1.3 Application to Vascular Implants
9.2 Cell-Free Scaffolds
9.2.1 Electrospinning
9.2.2 Stereolithography
9.2.3 Fused-Deposition Modeling
9.3 Cell-Based Scaffolds
9.3.1 Inkjet Printing
9.3.2 Extrusion-Based Bioprinting
9.3.2.1 Coaxial Printing
9.3.3 Laser-Assisted Printing
9.4 Comparison of the Technologies
9.4.1 Applications to the Vascular System and Other Tissue-Engineered Implants
9.5 Future Directions
Acknowledgments
References
10 3D PRINTING AND PATTERNING VASCULATURE IN ENGINEERED TISSUES
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Macroporous Constructs as Tissue Templates
10.1.2 Fabricating Fluidic Networks within Biomaterials
10.1.3 Approaches to Fabricate Endothelialized and Cell-Laden Tissue Constructs
10.1.4 Approaches to Integrate Patterned Vasculature In Vivo
10.1.5 Patterning Multiscale Vasculature with Endothelial Function
10.1.6 Angiogenesis, Vasculogenesis, and In Vivo Integration
10.1.7 Advanced Technologies which May Assist in Vascular Tissue Fabrication
References
11 Craniofacial and Dental Tissue
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Clinical Need for Craniofacial and Dental Regenerative Medicine
11.2.1 Major Diagnoses and Causes
11.2.1.1 Dental Disease
11.2.1.2 Trauma
11.2.1.3 Aging
11.2.1.4 Cancer
11.2.1.5 Congenital
11.2.2 Standard-of-Care Procedures
11.2.2.1 Teeth
11.2.2.2 Bone and Cartilage
11.2.2.3 Soft Tissue
11.3 Craniofacial and Dental Regenerative Medicine Research
11.3.1 Novel Materials
11.3.2 Teeth
11.3.3 Bone
11.3.4 Temporomandibular Joint
11.4 Bone Tissue Engineering Strategies
11.4.1 Scaffolds
11.4.1.1 Ceramic/bioactive Glasses
11.4.1.2 Natural/synthetic Polymers
11.4.1.3 Composites
11.4.2 Growth Factors
11.4.3 Cell-Based Therapies
11.4.4 New Craniofacial Tissues
11.4.5 Bioreactors
11.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
12 3D Printing for Craniofacial Bone Regeneration
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Anatomy and Mechanics of Craniofacial Bone
12.2.1 Structure of Craniofacial Bone
12.2.2 Craniofacial Bone Biomechanics
12.3 Materials for Craniofacial Scaffold
12.3.1 Bioceramics and Bioactive Glasses
12.3.2 Metals
12.3.3 Natural and Synthetic Polymers
12.3.4 Hydrogels
12.3.5 Demineralized and Decellularized Bone Matrix
12.4 3D-Printing Techniques for Craniofacial Scaffold
12.4.1 Photopolymerization
12.4.2 Extrusion-Based Printing
12.4.3 Laser-Assisted 3D Printing
12.4.4 Binder Jetting
12.5 Enhancing the Regenerative Capability of Biomaterials in Craniofacial Bone Regeneration
12.5.1 Effect of Scaffold Geometry
12.5.2 Effect of Mesenchymal Stem Cells, Progenitor Cells Delivery
12.5.3 Effect of Dopants or Coating
12.5.4 Effect of Oxygen and Growth Factors Delivery
12.5.5 Effect of Drug Delivery
12.5.6 Effect of Gene Delivery
12.6 Case Studies: Application of Porous Scaffold Design for Clinical Applications
12.6.1 Case Study 1: Cranial Defect
12.6.2 Case Study 2: Maxillary Defect
12.6.3 Case Study 3: Mandibular Defect
12.7 Conclusion
References
13 Additive Manufacturing for Bone Load Bearing Applications
13.1 Need for Bone Substitutes
13.2 Compositional, Structural and Mechanical Properties of Bone
13.2.1 Compositional Properties of Bone and Requirements for Bone substitutes
13.2.2 Structural Properties of Bone and Requirements for Bone Substitutes
13.2.3 Mechanical Properties of Bone and Requirements for Bone Substitutes
13.3 Difficulties in Achieving an Ideal Bone Substitute
13.4 Metallic Bone Substitutes
13.4.1 Metallic Materials, Limitations and Opportunities
13.4.2 AM of Metals for Bone Substitutes
13.5 Bioceramic Bone Substitutes
13.5.1 Bioceramic, Bioactive Glasses and Composite Materials
13.5.2 AM of Bioceramic Materials: Several Techniques, Limitations, and Opportunities
13.5.2.1 Liquid-based AM Approaches
13.5.2.2 Solid- or Slurry-based AM Approaches
13.5.2.3 Powder-based AM Approaches
13.6 Nanocomposite Bone Substitutes
13.6.1 Nanomaterials, Limitations, and Opportunities
13.6.2 AM of Nanocomposites: Several Techniques, Limitations and Opportunities
13.7 Conclusions
References
14 3D Printing of Cartilage and Subchondral Bone
14.1 BACKGROUND
14.1.1 FUNCTION AND ORGANIZATION
14.1.2 INJURY, DISEASE, AND TREATMENT
14.2 APPLICATIONS OF 3D PRINTING
14.2.1 3D-PRINTING CARTILAGE AND SUBCHONDRAL BONE
14.2.1.1 Extrusion Printing
14.2.1.2 Inkjet Printing
14.2.1.3 Scaffold-free Printing
14.2.1.4 Freeform Reversible Embedding of Suspended Hydrogels Printing
14.2.1.5 Direct In Situ Printing
14.3 MAJOR CHALLENGES AND PITFALLS
14.3.1 CELL SOURCE
14.3.2 BIOINKS AND SCAFFOLDS
14.3.3 DELIVERY
14.4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Acknowledgments
References
15 Bioprinting for Skin
15.1 Skin, Skin Substitutes, Possible Applications for Printed Skin
15.1.1 Skin—Function and Structure
15.1.1.1 Function
15.1.2 Structure
15.1.2.1 Epidermis
15.1.2.2 Basement Membrane
15.1.2.3 Dermis
15.1.2.4 Hypodermis
15.1.2.5 Cutaneous Appendages
15.2 Skin Substitutes, Applications for Printed Skin
15.2.1 Injuries of the Skin
15.2.2 Research
15.3 Skin Substitutes Generated by Bioprinting
15.3.1 Hydrogel
15.3.2 Extrusion-Based Bioprinted Skin Cells
15.3.3 Laser-Assisted Bioprinted Skin
15.3.3.1 Schematic of the Laser-Assisted Bioprinting Setup
15.3.3.2 The Printing Process Does not Affect the Cells
15.3.3.3 Laser-Assisted Printing of Skin Tissue—In Vitro Culture
15.3.3.3.1 Tissue Formation In Vitro (Submerged Culture)
15.3.3.3.2 Tissue Formation In Vitro (Air–Liquid Interface Culture)
15.3.3.4 Laser-Assisted Printing of Skin Tissue—In Vivo Culture
15.3.4 Inkjet-Based In Situ Bioprinted Skin
15.4 Discussion of the Different Bioprinting Techniques and Clinical Applicability
15.4.1 Optimization of the Skin Equivalents
15.4.2 Technical and Biomedical Challenges
15.4.3 Stem Cells as Possible Cell Sources for Bioprinting of Skin
15.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
16 Nanotechnology and 3D/4D Bioprinting for Neural Tissue Regeneration
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Nanotechnology for Neural Tissue Regeneration
16.2.1 Self-assembling Nanobiomaterials
16.2.2 Electrospun Polymeric Nanofibrous Neural Scaffold
16.2.3 Carbon Nanobiomaterials
16.3 3D/4D Bioprinting for Neural Tissue Regeneration
16.3.1 3D Bioprinting for Neural Tissue Regeneration
16.3.2 4D Bioprinting for Neural Tissue Regeneration
16.4 Conclusion and Future Directions
Acknowledgments
Questions
References
17 3D Bioprinting for Liver Regeneration
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Structural and Functional Complexity of the Liver
17.3 Liver Diseases
17.4 Regeneration of the Liver
17.5 Liver Tissue Engineering and 3D Bioprinting
17.5.1 Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting of Liver Tissues
17.5.2 3D Bioprinting
17.5.2.1 Inkjet-Based Bioprinting
17.5.2.2 Extrusion-Based Bioprinting
17.5.2.3 Vat Photopolymerization-Based Bioprinting
17.5.2.4 Kenzan Bioprinting
17.6 3D-Bioprinted Liver Tissues
17.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
Questions
References
18 Organ Printing
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Organ Printing Techniques
18.1.1.1 Microextrustion-based Printing
18.1.1.2 Ink-jet-based Printing
18.1.1.3 Laser-based Printing
18.1.2 Challenges in Organ Printing
18.1.3 Micro-Organ Printing as Physiological and Disease Platforms
18.1.3.1 Microextusion-based Printed Liver Micro-organ on a Chip
18.1.3.2 Computational Model Setup for Perfused Printed Liver Micro-organ
18.1.3.3 Steady State Simulations
18.1.4 Future Perspectives
References
19 3D Bioprinting, Nanotechnology, and Intellectual Property
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Why is Intellectual Property Important?
19.3 Types of Intellectual Property
19.3.1 Patents
19.3.2 Copyrights
19.3.3 Trademarks
19.3.4 Trade Secrets
19.4 Where Does Intellectual Property Law Originate?
19.5 What Aspects of 3D Bioprinting and Nanotechnology are Protectable?
19.5.1 Hardware
19.5.2 Software
19.5.3 Methods/Processes
19.5.4 Materials
19.6 Intellectual Property Protection Limitations for Engineered Tissue
19.7 Ethical Considerations of Engineered Tissue Intellectual Property
19.8 Intellectual Property Infringement
19.8.1 Trademark Infringement
19.8.2 Trade Secret Misappropriation
19.8.3 Copyright Infringement
19.8.4 Patent Infringement
19.9 Conclusion
Questions
Answers to Questions
Index