This book analyzes the factors that have sparked pandemics over the past 2000 years, from the Antonine Plague to COVID-19.
It is noteworthy that the frequency of pandemics has increased over the past 2000 years. The authors identify three main drivers for the development of pandemics: transportation, human development, and changes in natural ecosystems. It is important to note that with the advent of the industrial age, the length of time it takes for a pandemic to develop has decreased. COVID-19 is certainly not the last pandemic we will face. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to learn from the past 2000 years to help educate general community and public health officials about pandemic risks and help governments prepare for the next pandemic.
The book is also very useful in low and middle-income countries where, in the last several decades, viruses with potential for pandemics have originated. It's comprehensiveness and didactic style make this book a valuable read for government health agencies, private organizations, health care professionals and students.
About the Author
Claudia Ferreira, MD, PhD, graduated in medicine from the University of Cordoba in Argentina, followed by a fellowship from the Harvard AIDS Institute and the University of Texas Health Science Center in Houston, TX, USA. Dr. Ferreira has dedicated the last 25 years of her career to the fields of infectious diseases, tropical diseases and gastroenterology. Dr. Ferreira was also a medical editor of a web portal related to community awareness for bio-terrorism after 9/11. Dr. Ferreira also worked as an investigator for the National Agency for AIDS Research, a branch of the National Center for Research Science, and for several pharmaceutical laboratories in France. She recently started her own company to help international agencies and private organizations manage emerging infectious diseases, pandemic preparedness and - response planning.
Marie-Francoise Doursout, PhD,is a Professor in the Department of Anaesthesiology at the University of Texas Medical School in Houston. Her research focused on animal physiology with special emphasis on the pathophysiology of sepsis and septic shock. She has published peer-review manuscripts, review articles and book chapters in high impact journals. Additionally, Dr. Doursout is active in guiding and mentoring medical students and junior faculty from the Department of Anaesthesiology at the University of Texas Medical School in Houston.
Joselito S. Balingit, MD, graduated in Medicine from the College of Medicine, University of the Philippines. He received his training in Plastic Surgery at the Philippine General Hospital, followed by further training in Microsurgery at the Eastern Virginia Medical School in Norfolk, Virginia, USA. He spent more than a decade in clinical practice as a plastic surgeon, performing both aesthetic and reconstructive procedures. As a medical educator, Dr. Balingit was actively involved in postgraduate medical training in Singapore from 2010 to 2016. In addition to his experience in clinical practice and mentoring, Dr. Balingit has co-authored books on Oriental rhinoplasty and local anesthetic blocks.
Author(s): Claudia Ferreira, Marie-Françoise J. Doursout, Joselito S. Balingit
Edition: 1
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Language: English
Tags: Pandemics; Epidemiology; Infectious Diseases; Tropical Diseases; Community Health; Vaccination; Immunity; Disaster Medicine; Bioterrorism
Preface
Introduction
Zoonosis and Pandemics
Pandemics: The Price of Progress
Acknowledgments
Contents
Abbreviations
1: The First 1000 Years CE of Pandemics: Smallpox and Plague
Introduction
The Antonine Plague: Smallpox (165–190 CE)
Description of the Disease
Propagation of the Disease
Perception of the Disease in the Roman Empire
Fatality Rates
Attempts for Treatments
Justinian Plague (541–749 CE)
The Origin and Propagation of the Pandemic
The Pandemic and the Yersinia pestis Bacteria
The High Fatality Rate of the Justinian Plague
Justinian Plague and Climate Change
The Social and Cultural Impact of the Justinian Pest
Justinian Plague and the Divine Punishment
Japanese Smallpox Epidemic (733–737 CE)
The Disease Outbreak and Propagation
The Impact of the Japanese Smallpox on Society
References
2: The Plagues Pandemics: 2000 Years of Recurrent Devastations: The Black Death
Introduction
The Disease and Bacteria Yersinia pestis
The Plague Zoonosis
The Clinical Characteristics of the Plague
The Black Death (1346–1353)
The Initial Conditions: When Asia Meets Europe in Caffa
The Tartar Horsemen and the Black Death
The Biological Warfare Attack and the Consequences
Escaping Hell: The Propagation Towards Europe Through the Mediterranean
The Black Death Arrives in Italy: The Implementation of Quarantine
The Black Death Strikes Stronger in the United Kingdom
The Search for Cause and Remedies During the Black Death
The Miasma Theory
The Plague Doctors
The Search for Redemption
The Black Death and the Blame on Others
The Aftermath of the Black Death
The Third Plague Pandemic
The Plague in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries: The Endemic Situation
Global Distribution of Natural Plague Foci
Treatment
The Plague and the Antibiotic Resistance Problem
References
3: Outbreaks in the New World: 1492–Mid-Nineteenth Century
Introduction
Features of Infectious Disease Outbreaks in the New World
The Indigenous Populations of the New World Experienced Disease Outbreaks Before the Europeans Arrived
There Was a Large Scale of Deaths Which Affected the Indigenous Populations of the New World
There Were Many Diseases Introduced into the New World
There Were Multiple Sources of Disease Outbreaks
There Were Multiple Outbreaks of the Same Disease
The Native Populations Were Not Passive Victims of Disease
There Was Transmission of Disease from the New World to Europe
Disease Was Used as a Weapon in Conflicts in the New World
The Colonial Administrations Used Variolation and Vaccination to Fight Smallpox
Conclusion
References
4: Syphilis, Cholera, and Yellow Fever
Syphilis: The Great Pretender
General Considerations
The Zoonotic Theory of Syphilis and the Climate
Syphilis: The Great Pretender
Syphilis Transmission and Symptomatology
Syphilis in the Post-antibiotic Era
Syphilis: Maternofetal Mode of Transmission and Clinical Manifestations
Syphilis Diagnosis Testing Recommendations
Treatment
Classic Regimen
Considerations
Cholera Pandemics
Incubation and Clinical Manifestations
Cholera Treatment
Sanitary Interventions to Prevent the Development of Cholera Pandemics
Yellow Fever
Introduction
Transmission and Symptoms
Virus Isolation and Vaccine
Current Outbreaks
Conclusion
References
Syphilis
Cholera
Yellow Fever
5: The World Since 1900: Background to Pandemics in the Present
Introduction
Population
Urbanization
Food Production and Deforestation
Climate Change
Travel
Medical Science
Conclusion
References
6: Influenza Pandemics
The Spanish Flu
Introduction
Deadly Virus Struck in Three Waves
The Virus
Aspirin Poisoning and the Flu
Spanish Flu Pandemic Ends
Virus Mutates into Seasonal Flu
The Flu Takes Heavy Toll on Society
The 1957 Influenza Pandemic
Introduction
Origins
Spread
How Many Were Affected?
Symptoms, Course, and Treatment
The 1957 Pandemic Pathogen: A/H2N2
Pathophysiology
Protective Measures
Vaccine
Mortality
Impact
The 1968 Influenza Pandemic
Introduction
Origins
Spread
How Many Were Affected?
Symptoms and Course
Pathogen: H3N2
Protective Measures
Vaccine
Mortality
Economic Impact and Aftermath
Comparing the 1957 and 1968–1969 Pandemics
Swine Flu Pandemic 2009–2010
Introduction
Viral Pathogen Associated with the Swine Flu Pandemic
Incubation Time and Symptoms
Treatments for Swine Flu
Conclusion
References
Spanish Flu
The 1957 Influenza Pandemic
The 1968 Influenza Pandemic
The Swine Flu Pandemic 2009–2010
7: Coronavirus Pandemics
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS): 2002–2003
Origins
Hong Kong Index Case
The WHO Reacts
Pathogen
Symptoms and Course of the Disease
Diagnosis
SARS-CoV Treatment
Epidemiology
How Did SARS End?
SARS-CoV Vaccine
Impact
Significance of SARS Pandemic
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS): 2012–Present
Origins
Pathogen
Pathogenesis
Spread
MERS Outside of the Middle East
Symptoms: Course
Diagnosis
Treatment
MERS and Travel
Mortality
Vaccine
Impact
Conclusion
SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19
Introduction
COVID-19 as a Pandemic
Transmission
Symptoms
COVID-19-Associated Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
Viral Dose
Early Prediction of Disease Progression in COVID-19 Pneumonia Patients
Indicators of COVID-19 Spread in the Population
Therapeutic Interventions: Potential Treatments
Hypoxia-Inducible Factor (HIF) Activators
HIF-PHD Inhibitors
Vadadustat
Roxadustat
Daprodustat
Treatment Options During Lung Disease (Predominantly for ARDS)
Conclusions and Challenges to the Field
SARS-CoV-2 Variants
Variant Epsilon
Lambda, the “Peruvian” Variant
Omicron
Incubation
Symptoms
Treatments
BA.2 Subvariant
Emerging Variants in Africa
Risk of Recombination Between SARS-CoV-2 Variants
Social Impact of COVID-19
Introduction
COVID-19 and Restriction of Mass Gatherings
COVID-19 and Fear, Anxiety
COVID-19 and Mental Health
COVID-19 and Economy
COVID-19 and Global Ban on Wildlife Trade
COVID-19, a Moment to Step Up for the Vulnerable
The Pandemic and Quarantines Have Accentuated Violence Towards Women
What Is the Doctor’s Role?
Conclusion: How Can Humanity Pull Together in These Times? By the Dalai Lama
COVID-19: Artwork from a Modern Artist
References
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
SARS-CoV-2-COVID-19
SARS-CoV-2 Variants
Social Impact of COVID-19
8: HIV/AIDS, the Pandemic that Went from Initial Despair to a Contained Threat
Introduction
The Consequences of the Presence of HIV in the Human Body
HIV: A Zoonotic Illness
The Primate SIV
Conspiracy Theories About the Initial HIV Transmission to Humans
The Oral Vaccine Theory
The Bush Meat Trade
The Zaire 59 and DRC 60 Strains: Evidence for an Earlier Crossover?
HIV Dissemination
Early HIV Contamination History in the Twentieth Century
Redeeming Patient Zero
How did the Current HIV Pandemic Start?
The Initial Powerless Search for the Cause of Immunodeficiency
The Breakthrough: HIV Identification
Human-to-Human Transmission
Discrimination and Stigmatization
The Treatment of HIV-Infected Individuals
Mother-to-Child Transmission: In Collaboration with Prof. Stephane Blanche
HIV: A Chronic Disease
The Role of Activism in HIV Drug Development and Cure
The HIV Prevention Efforts
HIV Prevention Efforts
The Unfinished Quest for Vaccines
Conclusion
References
9: Vaccines
Introduction
1798: Variola (Edward Jenner)
1885: Rabies (Louis Pasteur)
1921: Tuberculosis (Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin)
1955: Polio (Jonas Salk)
1938: Yellow Fever (Max Theiler)
1963–1969: Measles (John F. Enders); Mumps (Michiaki Takahashi); Meningococcal Infections (Emil C. Gotschlich); Rubella (Stanley A. Plotkin)
1976–Present: Hepatitis B (Philippe Maupas/Maurice R. Hilleman)
2007: Human Papillomaviruses
2019–Present: COVID-19
China
European Union (EU)
United States
Herd Immunity
Why Is Herd Immunity Important?
How Is Herd Immunity Achieved?
Let Us Take COVID-19 as an Example
How Have We Achieved Herd Immunity for Other Infectious Diseases?
What Is the Outlook for Achieving Herd Immunity in the United States?
How Can We Slow the Transmission of COVID-19
References
Vaccines
Herd Immunity
10: Zoonosis
Introduction
The Landscape Anthropization
Travel
Intense Agriculture and Farming
Transmission Chains from Animals to Humans: Hosts and Vectors
Zoonotic Transmission Illustrations
The Impact of Human Activity on the Zoonotic Transmission Chain
The Threat Caused by Tropical Rainforest Exploitation and Destruction
SARS-CoV-2: The Origins of Evil
Is a New Pandemic Inevitable?
Have Humans Given Nature the Tools that Will Ultimately Defeat Mankind?
Should We Fear the Appearance of an Ever-Increasing Number of Zoonosis?
References
11: Hemorrhagic Fevers: Candidates for Pandemics
Chikungunya Fever
The Epidemics and the Virus
The Zoonotic Origin
Chikungunya and Ecological Imbalances
Symptoms
Treatments
Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
The Epidemics and the Virus
The Zoonotic Origin
Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever and Ecological Imbalance
Symptoms and Cure
Dengue Vaccine
Rift Valley Fever
The Epidemics and the Virus
Animal Transmission
The Rift Valley Hemorrhagic Fever Human Transmission
Symptoms and Incubation
Risk Factors for the Dissemination of the Rift Valley Hemorrhagic Fever
The Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever
The Epidemics and the Virus
The Zoonotic Origin
Transmission
Symptoms and Incubation
Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Treatment
Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever or O’Higgins Disease
The Epidemics and the Virus
The Zoonotic Origin
Symptoms
Vaccine Treatment
Bolivian Hemorrhagic Fever
Epidemics and the Virus
The Zoonotic Origin
Symptoms
Treatment
Prevention
Lassa Hemorrhagic Fever
The Epidemics and the Virus
Lassa Fever History
Ecological Imbalance
Transmission
Treatment
Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever
The Epidemics and the Virus
The Zoonotic Origin
Marburg in History
Transmission of Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever
Pathogenesis of Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever
Symptomatology
Virology
Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever: Lack of Treatment
Ebola Virus Disease
The Epidemics
The Ebola Virus
Ebola Virus in Animals
Ebola Virus Transmission
Ebola Virus History
Ebola-Zaire Outbreaks
Ebola Variants
Ebola-Sudan Variant
Ebola Variant in the Developed World
Ebola Variant Thai Forest
Ebola Bundibugyo
Ebola Virus Symptoms and Incubation Period
Ebola Virus: Consequences and Risks of Complications
Treatment
Ebola from an Epidemic as a Potential Pandemic Threat
Conclusions
References
Chikungunya
Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
The Rift Valley Hemorrhagic Fever
Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever
Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever
Bolivian Hemorrhagic Fever
Lassa Hemorrhagic Fever
Ebola
12: Bioterrorism
Definition
Background
What Is a Bioagent?
The Threat of Bioterrorism
Bioterrorism in History
Emerging Diseases and Bioterrorism: A New Concern?
The Definition of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
General Public Awareness About Bioterrorism
The Role of the Health Professionals in Bioterrorism
Biological Warfare: What to Look For?
Symptoms Potentially Associated with Bioterrorism Agents
Hospital Preparedness for Bioterrorism
The Defense of Houston Program
Risk of Outbreaks from Unintended Consequences of Research and Laboratory Accidents
References
13: Climate Change and the Risk of Future Pandemics
Introduction
How Does Climate Change Affect Human Health?
How Does Climate Change Influence the Risks of Infectious Disease Outbreaks?
Examples from History
Vector-Borne Diseases
Mosquitoes
Dengue
Malaria
Zika Virus
Yellow Fever
Ticks
Lyme Disease
Waterborne Diseases
Drinking Water
Vibriosis and Cholera
Coastal Flooding/Heavy Rainfall
Vibriosis from Oysters
Arctic Region
Influenza
What Can Be Done?
References
14: Antibiotic Resistance, a Different Pandemic
Introduction
A Brief History of Antibiotics Discovery
Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic Resistance: State of the Emergency
References
15: The Next Pandemic: Challenges and Hopes
Are We Ready for the Next Pandemic?
Challenges
Challenge #1: The Risk for Emergence of New Pandemic Pathogens Is Poorly Controlled
Challenge #2: The Current Global Health Security Infrastructure Needs to Be Improved
Challenge #3: Gain-of-Function Experiments
Challenge #4: Shortage of Healthcare Workers
Challenge #5: Misinformation
Reasons for Being Hopeful
Reason for Being Hopeful #1: COVID-19 Is Still Fresh in Our Minds
Reason for Being Hopeful #2: Advances in Vaccine Development
Reason for Being Hopeful #3: The Pandemic Spurred Innovation
Reason for Being Hopeful #4: The Spirit of Collaboration
Reason for Being Hopeful #5: More Venues for Dissemination of Information About the Pandemic
References
Glossary
