This world atlas presents a comprehensive overview of the gas-hydrate systems of our planet with contributions from esteemed international researchers from academia, governmental institutions and hydrocarbon industries. The book illustrates, describes and discusses gas hydrate systems, their geophysical evidence and their future prospects for climate change and continental margin geohazards from passive to active margins. This includes passive volcanic to non-volcanic margins including glaciated and non-glaciated margins from high to low latitudes. Shallow submarine gas hydrates allow a glimpse into the past from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to modern environmental conditions to predict potential changes in future stability conditions while deep submarine gas hydrates remained more stable. This demonstrates their potential for rapid reactions for some gas hydrate provinces to a warming world, as well as helping to identify future prospects for environmental research. Three-dimensional and high-resolution seismic imaging technologies provide new insights into fluid flow systems in continental margins, enabling the identification of gas and gas escape routes to the seabed within gas hydrate environments, where seabed habitats may flourish. The volume contains a method section detailing the seismic imaging and logging while drilling techniques used to characterize gas hydrates and related dynamic processes in the sub seabed.
This book is unique, as it goes well beyond the geophysical monograph series of natural gas hydrates and textbooks on marine geophysics. It also emphasizes the potential for gas hydrate research across a variety of disciplines.
Observations of bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) in 2D and 3D seismic reflection data combined with velocity analysis, electromagnetic investigations and gas-hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) modelling, provide the necessary insights for academic interests and hydrocarbon industries to understand the potential extent and volume of gas hydrates in a wide range of tectonic settings of continental margins. Gas hydrates control the largest and most dynamic reservoir of global carbon. Especially 4D, 3D seismic but also 2D seismic data provide compelling sub-seabed images of their dynamical behavior. Sub-seabed imaging techniques increase our understanding of the controlling mechanisms for the distribution and migration of gas before it enters the gas-hydrate stability zone. As methane hydrate stability depends mainly on pressure, temperature, gas composition and pore water chemistry, gas hydrates are usually found in ocean margin settings where water depth is more than 300 m and gas migrates upward from deeper geological formations. This highly dynamic environment may precondition the stability of continental slopes as evidenced by geohazards and gas expelled from the sea floor. This book provides new insights into variations in the character and existence of gas hydrates and BSRs in various geological environments, as well as their dynamics. The potentially dynamic behavior of this natural carbon system in a warming world, its current and future impacts on a variety of Earth environments can now be adequately evaluated by using the information provided in the world atlas.
This book is relevant for students, researchers, governmental agencies and oil and gas professionals. Some familiarity with seismic data and some basic understanding of geology and tectonics are recommended.
Author(s): Jürgen Mienert, Christian Berndt, Anne M. Tréhu, Angelo Camerlenghi, Char-Shine Liu
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2021
Language: English
Pages: 500
City: Cham
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
A History of Gas Hydrate Research
1 Gas Hydrate Research: From the Laboratory to the Pipeline
Abstract
1.1 General Aspects
1.2 Experimental Hydrate Research
1.2.1 Multiscale Approach
1.2.2 Overview of Experimental Techniques
1.2.2.1 Small (Laboratory) Scale
1.2.2.2 Pilot Scale
1.3 Final Considerations
Acknowledgements
References
2 Shallow Gas Hydrates Near 64° N, Off Mid-Norway: Concerns Regarding Drilling and Production Technologies
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Nyegga Gas Hydrate Location
2.2.1 General
2.2.2 The BSR
2.2.2.1 BSR-Related Drilling and Engineering Concerns
2.2.3 Complex Pockmarks
2.2.4 Hydrate Pingoes
2.2.4.1 A Qualitative Model for Hydrate Pingo Formation
2.2.5 Carbonate Rubble
2.2.6 Pockmark-, Carbonate Rubble-, and Pingo-Related Engineering Concerns
2.2.7 Unique Fauna
2.2.8 Fauna-Related Drilling and Engineering Concerns
2.2.9 Gas Chimneys
2.2.10 Gas-Chimney Related Drilling, Production, and Engineering Concerns
2.3 Husmus Geological Setting
2.3.1 General
2.3.2 The Shallow BSR at Husmus
2.3.3 Husmus-Related Drilling and Engineering Concerns
2.4 Ormen Lange Gas Seeping Event
2.4.1 Gas Seepage-Related Drilling and Engineering Concerns
2.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
3 Finding and Using the World’s Gas Hydrates
Abstract
3.1 Introduction—The Location of Gas Hydrates Beneath the Seabed
3.2 History of Gas Hydrate Exploration and Global Assessments of Distribution
3.3 The Importance of Natural Gas Hydrates
3.3.1 The Role of Gas Hydrates in Climate Change
3.3.2 Hydrates as a Control on Benthic Ecosystems
3.3.3 The Role of Gas Hydrates in Slope Stability
3.3.4 Hydrates as a Future Energy Source
3.3.5 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in Gas Hydrate Reservoirs
3.4 Evidence of Submarine Gas Hydrates
3.4.1 Geophysical Evidence
3.4.2 Quantifying Hydrates Through Chemical Measurements of Cores
3.4.3 Borehole Logging
3.5 Gas Hydrates in the Solar System: Applying Lessons from Earth
3.6 Summary
References
Gas Hydrate Fundamentals
4 Seismic Rock Physics of Gas-Hydrate Bearing Sediments
Abstract
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Dry-Rock Moduli
4.2.1 Elastic Moduli from Theoretical Models
4.2.2 Dry-Rock Elastic Moduli from Calibration
4.3 Effective-Fluid Model for Partial Saturation
4.4 Permeability
4.5 Attenuation
4.6 Seismic Velocities
4.7 Estimation of the Seismic Velocities and Attenuation
4.8 Conclusions
References
5 Estimation of Gas Hydrates in the Pore Space of Sediments Using Inversion Methods
Abstract
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Methods, Physical Properties and Microstructures Used for Hydrate Quantification
5.3 Strategy for Gas Hydrate Exploration and Quantification
5.4 Conclusions
References
6 Electromagnetic Applications in Methane Hydrate Reservoirs
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Electrical Properties of Gas Hydrates
6.2.1 Saturation Estimates
6.3 Marine CSEM Principle
6.4 CSEM Data Interpretation
6.5 CSEM Instrumentation and Exploration History
6.5.1 Seafloor-Towed Systems
6.5.2 Deep-Towed Systems
6.5.3 Other Systems
6.6 Global Case Studies
6.7 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Gas Hydrate Drilling for Research and Natural Resources
7 Hydrate Ridge—A Gas Hydrate System in a Subduction Zone Setting
Abstract
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Tectonic Setting
7.3 Stratigraphy and Structure
7.4 The Bottom Simulating Reflection Across Hydrate Ridge
7.5 Hydrate Occurrence and Distribution Within Hydrate Ridge
7.5.1 Hydrate Concentrations from Drilling
7.5.2 Inferred Hydrates and Free Gas Regionally Across Hydrate Ridge
7.6 Conclusions
References
8 Northern Cascadia Margin Gas Hydrates—Regional Geophysical Surveying, IODP Drilling Leg 311 and Cabled Observatory Monitoring
Abstract
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Regional Occurrences of Gas Hydrate Inferred from Remote Sensing Data
8.3 The Gas Hydrate Petroleum System for the Northern Cascadia Margin
8.4 Gas Hydrate Saturation Estimates
8.5 Gas Vents, Focused Fluid Flow and Shallow Gas Hydrates
8.6 Long-Term Observations
8.6.1 Gas Emissions at the Seafloor
8.6.2 Controlled-Source EM and Seafloor Compliance
8.6.3 Borehole In Situ Monitoring
8.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
9 Accretionary Wedge Tectonics and Gas Hydrate Distribution in the Cascadia Forearc
Abstract
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Data
9.3 Results
9.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
10 Bottom Simulating Reflections Below the Blake Ridge, Western North Atlantic Margin
Abstract
10.1 Geologic Setting
10.2 A Brief History of Blake Ridge Gas Hydrate Research
10.3 Blake Ridge BSR Distribution, Character and Dynamics
10.3.1 A Dynamic BSR on the Eastern Flank of Blake Ridge
10.3.2 Gas Chimneys Extending from BSRs
10.3.3 The Role of Sediment Waves in Gas Migration from the BSR
10.3.4 The Blake Ridge Diapir
10.4 Unanswered Questions and Future Research
References
11 A Review of the Exploration, Discovery and Characterization of Highly Concentrated Gas Hydrate Accumulations in Coarse-Grained Reservoir Systems Along the Eastern Continental Margin of India
Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 India National Gas Hydrate Program—Scientific Drilling Expeditions
11.3 Representative Gas Hydrate Systems—Krishna-Godavari Basin
11.3.1 Krishna-Godavari Basin Geologic Setting
11.3.2 NGHP-02 Area C Gas Hydrate System
11.3.3 NGHP-02 Area B Gas Hydrate System
11.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
12 Ulleung Basin Gas Hydrate Drilling Expeditions, Korea: Lithologic Characteristics of Gas Hydrate-Bearing Sediments
Abstract
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Geological Setting of the Ulleung Basin
12.3 Overview of the First and Second Ulleung Basin Gas Hydrate Drilling Expeditions (UBGH1 and 2)
12.4 Lithologic Characteristics of Gas Hydrate-Bearing Sediments in the Ulleung Basin
12.5 Summary
References
13 Bottom Simulating Reflections in the South China Sea
Abstract
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Geological Setting and Gas Hydrate Drilling Expeditions
13.3 The Characteristics of BSRs Within Various Sediment Environments
13.3.1 BSR and Cold Seeps in Taixinan Basin
13.3.2 BSRs in the Pearl River Mouth Basin
13.3.3 BSRs in the Qiongdongnan Basin
13.4 Well Log Anomalies of Different Types of Gas Hydrate
13.5 BSR Dynamics and Response to Fluid Migration
13.6 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
14 Gas Hydrate and Fluid-Related Seismic Indicators Across the Passive and Active Margins off SW Taiwan
Abstract
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Geological Setting
14.3 Seismic Observations
14.3.1 Gas Accumulation
14.3.2 Fluid Migration
14.3.3 Presence of Gas Hydrate
14.4 Distribution of the Seismic Indicators and Implications for Understanding the Hydrate System
14.5 Summary
References
15 Gas Hydrate Drilling in the Nankai Trough, Japan
Abstract
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Discovery of Gas Hydrates and Early Expeditions in the Nankai Trough Area
15.3 MITI Exploratory Test Well: Nankai Trough (1999–2000)
15.4 METI Multi-well Exploratory Drilling Campaign and Resource Assessments
15.4.1 Drilling Operations and Achievements
15.4.2 Discovery of the Methane Hydrate Concentration Zone and Resource Assessments
15.5 Tests for Gas Production Undertaken in 2013 and 2017
15.5.1 Gas Production Techniques and Site Selection
15.5.2 Drilled Boreholes and Data/Sample Acquisitions
15.5.3 Production Test Results and Findings
15.6 Other Gas Hydrate Occurrences and Resource Evaluation Results
15.7 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
16 Alaska North Slope Terrestrial Gas Hydrate Systems: Insights from Scientific Drilling
Abstract
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Alaska North Slope Gas Hydrate Accumulations
16.3 Alaska North Slope Gas Hydrate Research Drilling Programs
16.3.1 Mount Elbert Gas Hydrate Stratigraphic Test Well
16.3.2 Iġnik Sikumi Gas Hydrate Production Test Well
16.3.3 Hydrate-01 Stratigraphic Test Well
16.4 Alaska North Slope Gas Hydrate Energy Assessments
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Arctic
17 Gas Hydrates on Alaskan Marine Margins
Abstract
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Southeastern Alaskan Margin
17.3 Aleutian Arc
17.3.1 Eastern Aleutian Arc
17.3.2 Central Aleutian Arc
17.3.3 Western Aleutian Arc
17.3.4 Bering Sea
17.4 US Beaufort Sea
17.5 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
18 Gas Hydrate Related Bottom-Simulating Reflections Along the West-Svalbard Margin, Fram Strait
Abstract
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Geological and Oceanographic Settings
18.2.1 Regional Tectonic Setting
18.2.2 Sedimentary Setting
18.2.3 Oceanographic Setting
18.3 BSR Distribution and Characteristics Within Various Sediment Types
18.3.1 Regional Extent of the BSRs
18.4 Evidence for Gas Migration from Deep and Shallow Sources
18.4.1 The Gas Sources
18.4.2 Vertical Fluid Migration Features
18.5 Inferred Gas Hydrate Distribution
18.6 BSR Dynamics and Response to Natural Changes in the Environment
18.7 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
19 Occurrence and Distribution of Bottom Simulating Reflections in the Barents Sea
Abstract
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Geologic Setting
19.3 Observations of Bottom Simulating Reflections in the Barents Sea
19.3.1 BSR Distribution on the Southwestern Barents Sea
19.3.2 BSRs in the Northern Barents Sea
19.4 Fluid Flow and Source of Gas Forming Hydrates
19.5 Factors Influencing Hydrate Stability in the Barents Sea
19.6 Summary
References
20 Svyatogor Ridge—A Gas Hydrate System Driven by Crustal Scale Processes
Abstract
20.1 Evolution of Svyatogor Ridge
20.1.1 Tectonic Evolution
20.1.2 Sedimentary Evolution
20.1.3 Bottom Simulating Reflections and Fluid Flow Across Svyatogor Ridge
20.2 A Gas Hydrate System on Oceanic Crust
20.3 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
21 Gas Hydrate Potential in the Kara Sea
Abstract
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Geological Setting
21.3 Gas Hydrates in Subsea Permafrost
21.4 Submarine Gas Hydrates
21.5 Summary
References
Greenland and Norwegian Sea
22 Geophysical Indications of Gas Hydrate Occurrence on the Greenland Continental Margins
Abstract
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Geological Settings
22.2.1 West Greenland Margin
22.2.2 East Greenland Margin
22.3 Seismic Reflection Evidence for Gas Hydrates in the West Greenland Margin
22.3.1 Baffin Bay – Melville Bay
22.3.2 Disco Area
22.4 Seismic Reflection Evidence for Gas Hydrates Along the East Greenland Margin
22.4.1 Northeast Greenland Slope—Southwest Fram Strait
Acknowledgements
References
23 Gas Hydrates in the Norwegian Sea
Abstract
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Geological Setting
23.3 Gas Hydrates in the Norwegian Sea
23.3.1 Character of the BSR
23.3.2 Distribution of the BSR
23.3.3 Multi-component Seismic Studies of the BSR
23.3.4 Origin of the BSR
23.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
North Atlantic
24 US Atlantic Margin Gas Hydrates
Abstract
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Evidence for Gas Hydrates
24.2.1 Seismic Surveys
24.2.2 Drilling
24.2.3 Methane Seeps
24.3 Geographic Distribution of Gas Hydrates
24.3.1 South Atlantic Bight
24.3.2 Mid-Atlantic Bight
24.3.3 Southern New England Margin
24.4 Total Petroleum System
24.5 Estimates of Gas-In-Place in Methane Hydrates
24.5.1 USAM Whole Margin Gas-In-Place Estimates
24.5.2 Blake Ridge
24.6 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
25 Gas Hydrates and Submarine Sediment Mass Failure: A Case Study from Sackville Spur, Offshore Newfoundland
Abstract
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 Geologic Setting
25.2 Methods
25.3 Results
25.3.1 Seafloor Geomorphology
25.3.2 Seismic Stratigraphy
25.3.3 Bottom Simulating Reflection
25.3.4 Mass Transport Deposits
25.4 Discussion
25.4.1 Multiple BSRs
25.4.2 BSRs and MTDs
25.4.3 Causal Relationship Between Hydrates & Sediment Mass Failure
25.4.4 Non-causal Relationship Between Hydrates and Sediment Mass Failure
25.5 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
26 Bottom Simulating Reflections and Seismic Phase Reversals in the Gulf of Mexico
Abstract
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Geological Setting of the Northern Gulf of Mexico
26.3 BSR Types and Distribution
26.4 Phase Reversal at the Base of GHSZ
26.4.1 Terrebonne Basin
26.4.2 Mississippi Canyon
26.5 Summary
References
27 Insights into Gas Hydrate Dynamics from 3D Seismic Data, Offshore Mauritania
Abstract
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Geological Setting
27.3 Data
27.4 Observations
27.5 Discussion
27.5.1 Reasons for Very Shallow BSRs
27.5.2 Thermal Effects of Salt Diapirs on Hydrate Stability
27.5.3 Effects of Gas Hydrates on the Effective Permeability of Gas
27.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
South Atlantic
28 Distribution and Character of Bottom Simulating Reflections in the Western Caribbean Offshore Guajira Peninsula, Colombia
Abstract
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Geological Setting
28.3 Dataset and Methodology
28.4 BSR Types and Distribution
28.5 Geothermal Gradient
28.6 Summary
References
29 Gas Hydrate Systems on the Brazilian Continental Margin
Abstract
29.1 Introduction
29.2 The Amazon Deep-Sea Fan
29.3 Rio Grande Cone
Acknowledgements
References
30 Gas Hydrate Indications on the Southwest African Continental Margin
Abstract
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Data and Methods
30.3 Results
30.4 Discussion
30.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
31 Shallow Gas Hydrates Associated to Pockmarks in the Northern Congo Deep-Sea Fan, SW Africa
Abstract
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Geological Background
31.3 Typical Observations
31.3.1 Seafloor and Shallow Sediment Features of Gas Hydrate-Bearing Pockmarks
31.3.2 Subsurface Structures of Gas Hydrate-Bearing Kouilou Pockmarks
31.3.3 Fabrics of Shallow Gas Hydrates Retrieved from Sediment Cores
31.3.4 Geochemistry of Hydrate-Bound Hydrocarbons and Authigenic Carbonates
31.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Pacific
32 Gas Hydrate-Bearing Province off Eastern Sakhalin Slope (Sea of Okhotsk): Geological Setting and Factors of Control
Abstract
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Geological Setting
32.3 Geological Control of Gas Hydrate Formation
32.3.1 Structural Control
32.3.2 Conditions for the Generation of Hydrocarbons
32.3.3 Fluid Conductors
32.4 Potential and Proven Gas Hydrate-Bearing Structures Offshore Sakhalin
32.4.1 Gas Seeps
32.4.2 Pockmarks
32.4.3 BSRs and Other Seismic Signatures
32.5 Gas Hydrate Manifestation and Mechanisms of Hydrate Formation
32.6 Hydrochemical Control
32.7 7. Summary
References
33 Tectonic BSR Hypothesis in the Peruvian Margin: A Forgotten Way to See Marine Gas Hydrate Systems at Convergent Margins
Abstract
33.1 Introduction—Tectonic Erosion Segmentation of the Central Peruvian Margin Due to Nazca Ridge Subduction
33.2 Gas Hydrates Along the Central Peruvian Margin
33.2.1 BSRs in the Trujillo Basin
33.2.2 BSRs in the Lima Basin
33.3 Tectonic Suppression of BSRs Along the Central Peruvian Margin
33.4 Distribution of BSRs in Newly Explored Regions of the Central Peruvian Margin
33.4.1 Multi-Channel Seismic (MCS) Data from 1993 Hydrocarbon Exploratory Survey
33.4.2 Differences in BSR Occurrence and ODP Data
33.5 Possible Implications of Vertical Tectonics in the Presence and Absence of BSRs
33.6 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
34 Gas Hydrate and Free Gas Along the Chilean Continental Margin
Abstract
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Available Data
34.3 BSR and Gas-Phase Distribution
34.3.1 Northern Part of the Continental Margin (36° S–40° S)
34.3.2 Central Part of the Continental Margin (40° S–45° S)
34.3.3 Southern Part of the Continental Margin (South of 45° S)
34.4 Theoretical Modelling of Gas Hydrate Stability vs Climate Change
34.5 Summary
References
35 New Zealand’s Gas Hydrate Systems
Abstract
35.1 Introduction
35.2 The Hikurangi Margin—A Rich and Dynamic Gas Hydrate System
35.2.1 Tectonic and Sedimentary Setting of the Hikurangi Margin
35.2.2 Gas Hydrate Deposits on the Southern Hikurangi Margin
35.3 Gas Hydrate Petroleum System of the Southern Hikurangi Margin
35.4 Results from IODP Drilling on the Northern Hikurangi Margin
35.4.1 Anomalies Associated with Dynamic Gas Hydrate Systems
35.5 Taranaki & Northland Basins—New Zealand’s Leading Petroleum Province
35.6 Fiordland-Puysegur Margin—New Zealand’s Remote Gas Hydrate Province
35.7 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Indic
36 First Evidence of Bottom Simulation Reflectors in the Western Indian Ocean Offshore Tanzania
Abstract
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Dataset
36.3 GHSZ Modelling
36.4 Geological Setting
36.5 BSR Types and Distribution
36.5.1 Type 1 BSR
36.5.2 Type 2 BSR
36.6 Extent and Thickness of the GHSZ
36.7 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Mediterranean Sea
37 A Gas Hydrate System of Heterogeneous Character in the Nile Deep-Sea Fan
Abstract
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Regional Setting
37.3 Evidence of Gas Hydrates
37.3.1 Bottom Simulating Reflection (BSR)
37.3.2 Well Log Data
37.3.3 Seafloor Seepage Features
37.4 Discussion: A Heterogeneous Gas Hydrate System
37.5 Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Black Sea
38 Gas Hydrate Accumulations in the Black Sea
Abstract
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Geological Settings in the Black Sea
38.2.1 General Geology
38.2.2 Gas Hydrate Settings
38.3 Geophysical Features and Structures
38.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Lake Baikal
39 The Position of Gas Hydrates in the Sedimentary Strata and in the Geological Structure of Lake Baikal
Abstract
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Deep and Near-Surface Gas Hydrates in Lake Baikal
39.3 BSR and Other Geophysical Characteristics of Free Gas and Hydrate-Bearing Sediments
39.4 Search and Study Results of Gas Hydrates in Lake Baikal
39.5 Gas Hydrates and Lake Baikal Mud Volcanism
39.6 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Antarctic
40 Bottom Simulating Reflector in the Western Ross Sea, Antarctica
Abstract
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Regional Setting of Western Ross Sea
40.3 BSR Types and Distribution
40.3.1 Mud Volcanoes and Pockmarks Formed by Fluid/Gas Migration
40.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
41 Bottom Simulating Reflectors Along the Scan Basin, a Deep-Sea Gateway Between the Weddell Sea (Antarctica) and Scotia Sea
Abstract
41.1 Regional Settings
41.1.1 Tectonic and Sedimentary Setting
41.1.2 Oceanographic Setting
41.1.3 Types of BSRs Around Antarctica
41.2 BSR Characteristics and Distribution Within the Southern Scotia Sea
41.2.1 Hydrate and Diagenetic BSRs Breached by Vertical Chimneys Along the Discovery Bank
41.2.2 BSRs, Fluid-Pipes and Slope Instability Along the Flanks of Discovery and Bruce Banks
41.2.3 Gas Hydrate BSR Within Contourite Drifts Along the Deep Northern Scan Basin
41.3 Disruptions of the Gas Hydrate BSR
41.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
42 Bottom Simulating Reflections in Antarctica
Abstract
42.1 Introduction
42.2 South Shetland Margin
42.2.1 Geological Setting
42.2.2 Geophysical Data
42.2.3 Gas Hydrate and Related Features
42.2.4 Gas Hydrates Versus Climate Change
42.3 Opal-A/Opal-CT Phase Boundary
42.4 Wilkes Land Margin
42.5 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Where Gas Hydrate Dissociates Seafloor Microhabitats Flourish
43 Integrating Fine-Scale Habitat Mapping and Pore Water Analysis in Cold Seep Research: A Case Study from the SW Barents Sea
Abstract
43.1 Introduction
43.1.1 Cold Seep Habitats: Typical Pattern Versus Arctic Seeps
43.1.2 Cold Seeps at Leirdjupet Fault Complex, SW Barents Sea
43.1.3 Materials and Methods
43.1.4 Results and Discussion
43.1.4.1 Habitat Mapping
43.1.4.2 Pore Water Analysis
43.1.4.3 Integrating Habitat Mapping and Pore Water Analysis to Extrapolate Quantitative Areal Data
43.1.5 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
44 Correction to: A Review of the Exploration, Discovery and Characterization of Highly Concentrated Gas Hydrate Accumulations in Coarse-Grained Reservoir Systems Along the Eastern Continental Margin of India
Correction to: Chapter 11 in: J. Mienert et al. (eds.), World Atlas of Submarine Gas Hydrates in Continental Margins, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81186-0_11
Appendix_1
