Wild Mushrooms: Characteristics, Nutrition, and Processing

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Part I: Introduction to wild mushrooms
Chapter 1. An introduction to wild mushrooms and their exploitation for human well-being: An overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 General overview on mushrooms
1.3 Status of wild mushrooms
1.4 Why is domestication/artificial cultivation of wild mushrooms important?
1.5 Wild mushrooms exploited for human well-being
1.5.1 Ganoderma sp.
1.5.2 Shiitake (Lentinula edodes)
1.5.3 Pleurotus ostreatus
1.5.4 Tremella species
1.5.5 Agaricus species
1.5.6 Agrocybe aegerita
1.5.7 Cordyceps sp.
1.5.8 Hericium sp.
1.5.9 Grifola frondosa
1.5.10 Auricularia polytricha
1.6 The role of wild mushrooms in the environment
1.7 Ethnobiology and wild mushrooms
1.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 2. Cultivation strategies of edible and medicinal mushrooms
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Why cultivate edible and medicinal mushrooms?
2.3 Mushroom cultivation techniques
2.3.1 Outdoor log culture
2.3.1.1 Sawdust spawn and wood plug spawn preparation
2.3.1.2 Log inoculation
2.3.1.2.1 Stacking of inoculated logs
2.3.1.3 Stump inoculation
2.3.2 Indoor cultivation
2.4 Solid-state fermentation (SSF)
2.4.1 Substrate properties
2.4.2 External factors
2.5 Agro-industrial waste
2.6 Cultivation of the edible and medicinal mushroom Lentinula edodes
2.7 Cultivation of the edible and medicinal mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus
2.8 Cultivation of the edible and medicinal mushroom Auricularia auricula - judae
2.9 Cultivation of the edible and medicinal mushroom Agaricus bisporus
2.10 Cultivation of the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum
2.11 Submerged-liquid fermentation (SLF)
2.11.1 Isolation and morphological identification of pure mycelium of mushrooms
2.11.2 Conversion of solid-state fermentation (SSF) to submerged-liquid fermentation (SLF)
2.11.3 SLF in the bioreactor system
2.11.3.1 Critical parameters in SLF bioreactor system
2.11.3.2 Extraction of compounds from SLF of a bioreactor culture
2.11.4 A recent 6-year application of SLF bioreactor extracts in white fungal biotechnology
2.12 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3. Preservation and processing technology of wild mushrooms
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Species
3.2.1 Agaricus spp.
3.2.2 Ganoderma Species
3.2.3 Lentinus spp.
3.2.4 Grifolafrondosa
3.2.5 Rigidoporus Species
3.2.6 Pleurotusostreatus
3.3 Cultivation
3.3.1 Compost Preparations
3.3.2 Spawning
3.3.3 Casing
3.3.4 Harvesting
3.4 Substrate for cultivation
3.5 Blanching
3.6 Drying
3.6.1 Traditional Drying
3.6.2 Hot Air Drying
3.6.3 Microwave Drying
3.6.4 Freeze Drying
3.6.5 Osmotic Dehydration
3.7 Freezing
3.8 Canning
3.9 Pickling
3.10 Irradiation
3.11 Packaging
3.12 Other processing techniques
3.12.1 Pulsed electric Field and Ultrasound
3.12.2 Ozone
3.12.3 Electrolyzed Water
3.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4. Medicinal mushroom nutraceutical commercialization: Two sides of a coin
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Mushroom nutraceuticals: The elephant in the room
4.3 Mushroom identification and nomenclature
4.4 Raw material: How to make a fair choice?
4.5 Organic raw materials for mushroom nutraceuticals
4.6 Safety concerns and quality assurance/control
4.7 Side effects, contraindications, and concerns
4.8 Bioavailability of mushrooms' active compounds and drug delivery systems
4.8.1 Encapsulation of mushroom nutraceuticals
4.8.2 Nanotechnology-mycosynthesis
4.9 Dosing
4.10 Mushroom dietary supplements production and ethics
4.11 Push it to the market: Are we ready for mushroom nutraceuticals?
4.12 General strategies when formulating mushroom nutraceuticals
4.13 Opportunities and prospects
4.13.1 Mushroom nutraceuticals and COVID-19: Efficient antiviral or another murky field?
4.14 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Part II: Health aspects of wild mushrooms
Chapter 5. Mushroom ingestion for mineral supplementation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Minerals
5.2.1 Calcium
5.2.2 Potassium
5.2.3 Magnesium
5.2.4 Sodium
5.2.5 Phosphorus
5.2.6 Copper
5.2.7 Iron
5.2.8 Manganese
5.2.9 Zinc
5.2.10 Selenium
5.3 Factors affecting mineral profile
5.4 Mineral fortification
5.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
Chapter 6. Edible mushrooms: A source of quality protein
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Various species of edible mushrooms all over the world
6.2.1 Nutritional profiling of edible mushrooms
6.2.2 Energy
6.2.3 Carbohydrates
6.2.4 Proteins
6.2.5 Lipids
6.2.6 Vitamins
6.2.7 Minerals
6.3 Comparative analysis of edible mushrooms with other protein sources
6.4 Protein digestibility of edible mushrooms
6.5 Health benefits and pharmacological properties of mushrooms
6.6 Role of edible mushrooms as functional foods
6.7 Role of edible mushrooms as a nutraceutical source
6.8 Perishability of edible mushrooms
6.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7. Health benefits of edible wild mushrooms
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Molecules obtained from mushrooms with bioactive function
7.2.1 Proteins
7.2.2 Lectins
7.2.3 Carbohydrates/polysaccharides
7.2.4 Lipids/polyunsaturated fatty acids
7.2.5 Other compounds (vitamins/minerals)
7.3 Functional and biological properties of mushrooms
7.3.1 Prebiotic properties
7.3.2 Antioxidant properties
7.3.3 Antimicrobial properties
7.4 Application of mushrooms in food and human health
7.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8. Nature and chemistry of bioactive components of wild edible mushrooms
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Antitumor properties of mushrooms
8.2.1 Immunomodulating activity of mushrooms - β-glucans
8.2.2 Cytotoxic compounds of mushrooms
8.3 Antibiotic compounds from mushrooms
8.4 Mushrooms in the treatment of metabolic disorders
8.4.1 Anti-hypercholesterolemic activity of mushrooms
8.4.2 Anti-hyperglicemic properties of mushroom products
8.5 Mushroom products in the treatment of major depression - psilocybin
8.6 Mushroom compounds with vitamin activity
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 9. In vitro and in vivo bioactivity of edible wild mushrooms
9.1 Introduction
9.2 In vitro and in vivo antioxidant potential of edible mushrooms - bioactive compounds associated
9.2.1 Polyphenols, phenolic acids, and flavonoids
9.2.2 Polysaccharides
9.2.3 Proteins
9.2.4 Other bioactive compounds
9.3 Antitumor, anti-cancer, adjuvant effect, and immunostimulatory activity due to polysaccharides from edible mushrooms
9.4 Anti-inflammatory, thrombotic, and genoprotective effect of edible mushrooms
9.5 Antimicrobial and antifungal activity of edible mushrooms
9.6 Anti-HIV and possible inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 main protease
9.7 Conclusions
References
Part III: Analysis of mushroom
Chapter 10. Oxidative stress prevention by edible mushrooms and their role in cellular longevity
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Mushroom strategies to prevent oxidative stress and prolong cellular longevity
10.2.1 Regulation of redox imbalance
10.2.1.1 Primary mechanism of action of mushroom antioxidants
10.2.1.1.1 Hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) and proton coupled electron transfer (PCET) mechanisms
10.2.1.1.2 Radical adduct formation (RAF)
10.2.1.1.3 Sequential electron proton transfer (SEPT)
10.2.1.1.4 Sequential proton loss electron transfer (SPLET)
10.2.1.1.5 Sequential proton loss hydrogen atom transfer (SPLHAT)
10.2.1.2 Secondary mechanism of action of mushroom antioxidants
10.2.1.2.1 Deactivation of metals
10.2.1.2.2 Inhibition of oxidative enzymes
10.2.1.2.3 Inhibition of lipid peroxidation (LPO)
10.2.1.2.4 Singlet oxygen (1O2) quenching
10.2.1.2.5 Synergism-regeneration of primary antioxidants
10.2.1.3 Interaction with various redox signaling pathways
10.2.1.3.1 Activation of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2
10.2.1.3.2 Activation of sirtuin1 (SIRT1)
10.2.1.3.3 Suppression of nuclear factor kappa B
10.2.2 Stimulation of the immune system in oxidative stress conditions
10.2.2.1 Mushrooms as a source of trace elements in oxidative stress prevention and maintaining efficient immune response
10.2.2.2 Activation of antioxidant enzymes by mushroom compounds in the prevention of autoimmunity or transplant rejection
10.3 Factors that influence the outcome of mushroom antioxidant therapy
10.3.1 Physicochemical and biological properties of antioxidants and RONS
10.3.2 Pro-oxidative effect of antioxidants
10.3.3 Interference of antioxidant supplementation with drugs
10.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11. Qualitative and quantitative techniques of analysis for mushrooms
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Physical component analysis
11.2.1 Dry density
11.2.2 Moisture content
11.2.3 Mechanical stress test
11.2.4 Thermal conductivity of mushroom
11.2.5 Water absorbtion rate
11.2.6 Color measurement
11.2.7 Yield
11.2.8 Browning index
11.2.9 Water-holding capacity
11.2.10 Swelling index
11.2.11 Seed germination test
11.3 Chemical component analysis
11.3.1 Reversed phase-HPLC analysis of toxins
11.4 Qualitative estimation
11.4.1 Extraction of polysaccharides from mushrooms
11.4.2 Hot water extraction (HWE) of polysaccharides
11.4.3 Alkaline- or acid-extraction (AE)
11.4.4 Ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE)
11.5 Molisch's test for carbohydrates
11.6 Quantitative analysis
11.6.1 Proximate analysis
11.6.1.1 Estimation of moisture content
11.6.1.2 Estimation of total proteins
11.6.1.3 Lowry assay by Folin reaction
11.6.1.4 Determination of total lipids
11.6.1.5 Crude fiber analysis
11.6.1.6 Determination of total ash
11.6.1.7 Total carbohydrate estimation
11.6.1.8 Mineral analysis
11.6.1.9 Estimation of total sugar
11.6.1.10 Soluble sugar assay
11.7 Amino acid assay
11.8 Fatty acid assay
11.8.1 Fatty acid profile
11.9 Qualitative phytochemical analysis
11.9.1 Barfoed's test for monosaccharides
11.9.2 Fehling's test for free reducing sugar
11.9.3 Test for tannins
11.9.3.1 Borntrager's test for anthraquinones
11.9.3.2 Liebermann-Burchard test for steroids
11.9.4 Test for terpenoids
11.9.4.1 Saponins test
11.9.4.2 Flavonoids by Shinoda's test
11.9.4.3 Flavonoids by ferric chloride test
11.9.4.4 Flavonoids by lead ethanoate test
11.9.4.5 Flavonoids by NaOH test
11.9.5 Test for alkaloids
11.9.6 Test for soluble starch
11.10 Quantitative phytochemical analysis
11.10.1 Test for organic acids
11.10.2 Determination of TPC
11.10.3 Total flavonoid determination
11.10.4 Estimation of total flavonoid content
11.10.5 Test for 5′-nucleotide assay
11.10.6 1LC-MS analysis of phenolics
11.11 Nutritional, toxic studies for human health hazards
11.11.1 Determination of mercury content in mushroom
11.11.2 Determination of lead and cadmium content in mushroom
11.11.3 Determination of arsenic content in mushrooms
11.12 Estimation of human health risks
11.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12. Toxic components and toxicology of wild mushrooms
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Hepatotoxic mushrooms - amatoxin poisoning
12.3 Nephrotoxic mushrooms
12.3.1 Amanita renal failure poisoning syndrome
12.3.2 Orellanine poisoning syndrome
12.4 Neurotoxic mushroom poisoning syndromes
12.4.1 Muscarinic poisoning syndrome
12.4.2 Mycoatropinic poisoning syndrome
12.4.3 Psilocybin-containing mushrooms
12.4.4 Erythromelalgia-like syndrome
12.4.5 Polyporic acid - poisoning syndrome
12.4.6 Morel neurological syndrome
12.5 Gyromitrin poisoning syndrome
12.6 Disulfiram-like mushroom poisoning syndrome
12.7 Rhabdomyolysis mushroom poisoning syndrome
12.8 Pancytopenia - trichotecene-containing mushrooms
12.9 Encephlopathy poisoning syndrome - Pleurocibella porrigens
12.10 Yunnan sudden unexplained death syndrome - Trogia venenata?
12.11 Gastrointestinal mushroom poisoning syndrome
12.12 Shiitake dermatitis
12.13 Mushrooms that cause hypersensitivity reactions
12.13.1 Immunohaemolytic anemia-inducing mushrooms - Paxillus syndrome
12.13.2 Lycoperdonosis
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 13. Influence of food-processing conditions on bioactivity and nutritional components of edible mushroom
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Effect of fermentation on edible mushrooms
13.3 Effect of pasteurization on edible mushrooms
13.3.1 Techniques of pasteurization
13.4 Effect of soaking and blanching on edible mushrooms
13.5 Effect of irradiation on edible mushrooms
13.6 Effect of low temperature (freezing) on edible mushrooms
13.7 Effect of vacuum moistening on edible mushrooms
13.8 Effect of drying on edible mushrooms
13.8.1 Solar drying of mushrooms
13.8.2 Hot air drying
13.8.3 Freeze drying
13.8.4 Microwave drying
13.8.5 Far-infrared drying
13.8.6 Ultrasound-assisted drying
13.9 Effect of salting and pickling on edible mushrooms
13.10 Effect of heat treatment on edible mushrooms
13.11 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Specific applications of wild mushrooms
Chapter 14. Extracellular enzymes of wild mushrooms
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Mushrooms
14.2.1 Significance of mushrooms
14.3 Extracellular enzymes of wild mushrooms
14.3.1 Cellulases
14.3.1.1 Classification of cellulases
14.3.1.1.1 Endoglucanase
14.3.1.1.2 Exoglucanase
14.3.1.1.3 β- glucosidase
14.3.1.2 Source of cellulases
14.3.1.3 Mechanism of cellulases
14.3.2 Laccases
14.3.2.1 Sources of laccases
14.3.2.2 Mechanisms of laccases
14.3.3 Amylases
14.3.3.1 Classification of amylases
14.3.3.1.1 α-amylase
14.3.3.1.2 β-amylase
14.3.3.1.3 γ-amylase
14.3.3.2 Sources of amylases
14.3.3.3 Mode of action
14.3.4 Lipases
14.3.4.1 Classification of lipases
14.3.4.2 Sources for lipases
14.3.4.3 Mode of action
14.3.5 Proteases
14.3.5.1 Classification of proteases
14.3.5.1.1 Exopeptidases
14.3.5.1.2 Endopeptidases
14.3.5.2 Source of proteases
14.3.5.3 Mode of action
14.3.5.3.1 Serine proteases
14.3.5.3.2 Aspartic proteases
14.4 Applications of extracellular enzymes of wild mushrooms (McKelvey and Murphy, 2011)
14.4.1 Food processing
14.4.2 Tanning industry
14.4.3 Animal feed
14.4.4 Waste treatment
14.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15. Application of mushrooms in the degradation of xenobiotic components and the reduction of pesticides
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Essential chemicals and enzymes from mushrooms involved in mycoremediation
15.3 Need for degradation of xenobiotics and reduction of pesticides
15.4 Mechanism of degradation by mushrooms
15.5 Underlying factors influencing bioremediation by mushroom
15.6 Limitations of mycoremediation
15.7 Conclusion and future avenues
Funding Source
Author contributions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 16. Wild Mushrooms: Characteristics, Nutrition, and Processing
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Kinds of wild mushrooms
16.2.1 Ecological classification
16.2.2 Functional classification
16.3 Distribution of wild mushrooms
16.3.1 Forests
16.3.2 Deserts
16.3.3 Mountains
16.4 Types of waste material
16.5 Biology of wild mushrooms and enzymes produced
16.6 The role of wild mushrooms in bioremediation
16.7 The importance of lignocellulolytic enzyme-producing by wild mushrooms
16.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17. Cultivation of wild mushrooms using lignocellulosic biomass-based residue as a substrate
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Wild mushroom cultivation: Nutritional aspects
17.3 Wild mushroom cultivation: Environmental aspects
17.4 Lignocellulosic biomass composition and suitability as a substrate for wild mushroom cultivation
17.5 Sources, composition, and availability of lignocellulosic biomass
17.5.1 Rice
17.5.2 Wheat
17.5.3 Maize
17.5.4 Sugarcane
17.5.5 Sawdust
17.6 Raw lignocellulosic biomass as a supplement for wild mushroom growth
17.7 Modified lignocellulosic biomass as a supplement for the growth of wild mushrooms
17.8 Conclusion
References
Index