Waste Heat Recovery: Principles and Industrial Applications

Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Waste Heat Recovery in Industries
1.3 Drivers for WHR Projects
1.4 Identifying WHR Opportunities
1.5 Simulation and Optimization for WHR Projects
1.6 Common Utilities and their Effect on WHR
1.7 Scope and Use of the Book and Chapters
1.8 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 2 Principles of Heat Transfer and Heat Integration
2.1 Overview
2.2 Energy, Enthalpy and Heat Capacity
2.3 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
2.4 Heat Exchanger Basics
2.5 Heat Transfer Coefficients
2.6 Heat Integration
2.7 Temperature-Enthalpy Plot
2.8 Exergy Concepts
2.9 Exergy Analysis
2.10 Application of Exergy Analysis
2.11 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Pinch Analysis for Heat Integration
3.1 Overview
3.2 What is Pinch Analysis?
3.3 Stream Data for Pinch Analysis
3.4 Target on Utilities and Pinch
3.5 Target on Heat Transfer Area
3.6 Minimum Number of Units
3.7 Optimum Minimum Driving Force
3.8 Heat Exchanger Network Representation
3.9 Analysis of a Given Heat Exchanger Network
3.10 Heat Exchanger Network Design
3.11 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 4 Heat Exchangers for Waste Heat Recovery
4.1 Overview
4.2 Classifications of Heat Exchangers Used for WHR
4.3 STHE Details and Classification
4.4 Design Considerations for Heat Exchangers
4.5 Options for Increasing Heat Transfer in STHEs
4.6 Plate Heat Exchangers
4.7 Unfired Waste Heat Recovery Steam Generators
4.8 Heat Transfer Enhancement Techniques
4.9 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 5 Heat Pumps for Waste Heat Recovery
5.1 Overview
5.2 Classification of Heat Pumps
5.3 Mechanical and Thermal Vapour (Re-)Compression
5.4 Absorption Heat Pumps for Heat/Temperature Upgrade
5.4.1 Absorption Heat Pump or Type-1 AHP
5.4.2 Absorption Heat Transformer or Type-2 AHP
5.4.3 Chemical Heat Pumps
5.5 Heat Pumps as Chillers
5.5.1 Adsorption Heat Pump as Chillers
5.6 Selection of Heat Pumps
5.7 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 6 Cost Estimation and Economic Evaluation
6.1 Overview
6.2 Data for FCI Estimation, and Accuracy and Classification of FCI Estimates
6.3 Plant Cost Index
6.4 Estimation of Equipment Cost and Capital Cost
6.4.1 Six-Tenths and Seven-Tenths Rules
6.4.2 Module Costing Technique
6.4.3 Discussion on FCI Estimation
6.5 Estimation of Operating Cost and Revenue
6.6 Time Value of Money
6.7 Profitability Criteria
6.8 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 7 Estimation of Energy and CO2 Emissions
7.1 Overview
7.2 Primary and Secondary Energy Sources
7.3 Production of Common Utilities
7.3.1 Generation of Electricity
7.3.2 Steam Production
7.3.3 Cooling Water Production
7.3.4 Chilled Water Production
7.4 Energy for Producing/Supplying Utilities
7.5 CO2 Emissions Due to Utilities Used in the Process
7.5.1 Life Cycle Assessment of CO2 Emissions in Electricity Generation
7.6 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 8 Waste Heat Reduction in Vacuum Systems
8.1 Overview
8.2 Working Principles of Main Vacuum Generation Equipment
8.2.1 Steam Jet Ejectors
8.2.2 Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps
8.2.3 Dry Vacuum Pumps
8.3 Benefits and Constraints of Vacuum Pumps
8.4 Design Principles and Utility Requirements for SJE, LRVP and DVPs
8.4.1 Estimation of Suction Flow Rate of a Vacuum System
8.4.2 Steam Jet Ejectors
8.4.3 Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps
8.4.4 Dry Vacuum Pumps
8.4.5 Chilled Water Generation
8.5 Strategies for Minimizing Waste Heat Generation in Vacuum Systems
8.6 Case Studies
8.6.1 Case Study 1: Vacuum System Design for Condenser of a Condensing Steam Turbine
8.6.2 Case Study 2: Design of a Large Vacuum System Involving Hydrocarbons
8.6.3 Analysis of Revamp Alternatives: Cases 2B to 2D
8.7 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 9 Waste Heat Recovery in Distillation
9.1 Overview
9.2 WHR Methods for Distillation
9.3 Minimizing Energy Consumption of Distillation by Operation Optimization
9.4 Low-Cost/Complexity Modifications for Reducing Energy Consumption
9.5 WHR in Distillation Columns using Heat Pumps (Medium Cost/Complexity)
9.5.1 Use of WHR for Reducing Operating Pressure of Distillation
9.6 WHR in Distillation for Power Generation (Medium Cost/Complexity)
9.7 Other Heat Integration Methods for Distillation Columns
9.8 Industrial Case Studies
9.8.1 Propylene–Propane Separation
9.8.2 Foul Water Stripper
9.8.3 C4 Separation
9.8.4 Application of WHR Methods to DWC
9.8.5 Application of WHR Methods to Reactive Distillation
9.9 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 10 Waste Heat Recovery from Electric Power Generation
10.1 Overview
10.2 Industrial Power Generation Methods
10.3 Co-Generation System
10.4 Tri-Generation
10.5 Quad-Generation
10.6 Increasing Power Generation using WHR Methods
10.7 Summary
References
Acronyms
Exercises
Chapter 11 Waste Heat Recovery from Flue Gas Systems
11.1 Overview
11.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Flue Gas WHR Methods
11.3 Flue Gas WHR in Boilers with Non-Condensing Economizers
11.3.1 Avoiding Cold-End Corrosion in Economizers
11.4 Flue Gas WHR in Boilers with Condensing Economizer
11.5 Flue Gas WHR in Boilers with Air Preheater
11.6 Flue Gas WHR in Fired Heaters/Furnaces Using Air Preheater
11.7 Flue Gas WHR Using Heat Pipes
11.8 Limitations and Potential Solutions for Air Preheater Applications
11.9 Flue Gas WHR for Steam Generation
11.10 Synergy of Flue Gas WHR with Emissions Reduction and Carbon Capture Technologies
11.11 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 12 Waste Heat Recovery in Compression Systems
12.1 Overview
12.2 Compressed Air System
12.2.1 Performance Equations for Air Compressors
12.3 Methods to Reduce Energy Consumption and WH Generation in Air Compressors
12.4 WHR in Air Compressors
12.4.1 Heat Recovery from Air Compressor Drivers
12.5 Instrument Air Drying
12.6 WHR from Process Compressors
12.7 WHR from Refrigeration Compressors
12.8 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 13 Desalination and Water Recovery Using Waste Heat
13.1 Overview
13.2 Classification of Major Desalination Processes
13.3 Thermal Desalination Processes
13.3.1 Multi-Effect Distillation
13.3.2 Multi-Stage Flash
13.3.3 Mechanical/Thermal Vapor Compression
13.4 Membrane Desalination Processes
13.4.1 Seawater Reverse Osmosis
13.4.2 Electrodialysis
13.5 Comparison of Major Desalination Processes
13.6 Integration of Thermal Desalination Processes with WH
13.7 Recovery of Water from Wastewater
13.8 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 14 Waste Heat Recovery Using a Heat Transfer Fluid
14.1 Overview
14.2 Closed-Loop WHR Systems
14.3 Heat Transfer Fluid Selection
14.3.1 Use of Hot Oil Heat Transfer Fluids
14.4 Design Strategies for Developing Heat Transfer Fluid Systems Using Hot Oils
14.5 Low-Temperature Heat Exchanger Network Using Pressurized Water
14.5.1 A Case Study
14.6 Use of Pressurized Water and Steam Generation for Heat Integration
14.7 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 15 Cooling System Options for Waste Heat Reduction
15.1 Overview
15.2 Process Cooling Systems
15.3 Seawater Cooling Systems
15.4 Freshwater Cooling Systems
15.4.1 Cooling Tower Performance Evaluation Model
15.4.2 Debottlenecking Options for Cooling Systems
15.5 Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
15.6 Hybrid Cooling Systems
15.7 Strategies for Optimizing Cooling Systems
15.8 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 16 Waste Heat Recovery in and Optimization of Steam Systems
16.1 Overview
16.2 Steam Systems in Process Plants
16.3 WHR Opportunities in Steam Generation
16.3.1 Boilers
16.3.2 Boiler Blowdown Heat Recovery
16.3.3 Sizing of Blowdown Flash Drum
16.4 WHR Opportunities in Steam Distribution
16.4.1 Steam Pipe Sizing
16.4.2 Heat Loss Through Uninsulated Pipe and Economic Insulation Thickness
16.4.3 Estimation of Steam Loss Through a Hole in a Steam Pipe
16.5 WHR Opportunities for Efficient Steam Usage
16.5.1 Maximizing the Use of Low-Pressure/Flash Steam
16.5.1.1 Optimization of the deaerator pressure
16.5.1.2 Flash steam usage for combustion air heating in boilers and fired heaters
16.5.1.3 Upgrading flash steam with mechanical/thermal vapour recompression
16.5.2 Power Generation with Operating Flexibility
16.5.3 Direct Usage of Steam
16.5.4 Steam Turbines
16.5.4.1 Steam turbine drivers
16.5.4.2 Pros and cons of steam turbine drivers
16.5.4.3 Choice between steam turbine driver and electric driver
16.5.4.4 Steam turbine performance
16.5.5 Other Strategies for Maximizing WHR in a Steam System
16.6 Steam System Optimization
16.6.1 Optimization Model
16.6.2 Base Case
16.6.3 Case A: Optimization of the Base Case
16.6.4 Case B: Replacement of Smaller Steam Turbines
16.6.5 Case C: Using Low-Pressure Steam in Reboilers
16.6.6 Case D: Lowering Exhaust Pressure of Steam Turbo Generator
16.6.7 Summary and Analysis of Results
16.6.8 True Cost of Steam
16.7 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 17 Waste Heat Recovery in Condensate Return Systems
17.1 Overview
17.2 Condensate Return System
17.2.1 Importance of Condensate Recovery
17.2.2 Estimation of Condensate Recovery
17.2.3 Barriers for Good Condensate Recovery
17.3 Water Hammer
17.4 Measures to Prevent Water Hammer
17.5 Stall Condition
17.5.1 Evaluating Stall Conditions
17.5.2 Stall Condition Prevention
17.5.3 Condensate Drum/Pot Sizing Guidelines
17.6 Steam Traps
17.6.1 Steam Condensate Removal and Steam Trap Problems
17.6.2 Benefits of Good Steam Trap Management
17.6.3 Influence of Human Factors on Steam Trap Reliability
17.6.4 Condensate Drip Legs
17.6.5 Steam Condensate Header Sizing
17.7 Strategies for Reducing Pressure Drop in Steam Condensate Headers
17.8 Flash Steam Recovery
17.9 Steam System Optimization with Condensate Recovery and WHR
17.9.1 Case CR1: Increasing Condensate Recovery
17.9.2 Case CR2: Increasing Condensate Recovery and WHR
17.9.3 Summary and Analysis of Results
17.10 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Appendix
Chapter 18 Sustainability of Waste Heat Recovery Projects
18.1 Overview
18.2 Sustainability Model for WHR
18.3 Damage Mechanisms and Potential Solutions
18.4 Acid Dew Point Corrosion
18.5 WHR Equipment Hazards and Safer Solutions
18.6 Material of Construction (Metallurgy) Selection for HEs
18.7 Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning
18.8 Recommended Fluid Velocity in Pipes
18.9 Damage Mechanism Review, Risk-Based Inspection and Integrity Operating Windows
18.10 Summary
References
Acronyms and Notation
Exercises
Chapter 19 Project Management for Waste Heat Recovery Projects
19.1 Overview
19.2 Differences between Brownfield and Greenfield Type WHR Projects
19.3 Developing WHR Projects and Pre-Feasibility Study
19.4 Pre-FEED and FEED Development Strategy
19.5 Pre-FEED, Feasibility or Conceptual Design
19.5.1 Re-Use of Existing Equipment
19.5.2 Equipment Interactions
19.5.3 Heat/Process Integration Study
19.5.4 Detailed Hydraulic Study
19.5.5 Green Engineering/Process Intensification
19.5.6 Inherently Safer Design
19.5.7 Design-to-Capacity Review
19.5.8 Metallurgy Review
19.5.9 Outside Battery Limit Facilities Review
19.5.10 Equipment Layout Review
19.5.11 Preliminary Process Safety Studies
19.6 Front End Engineering Design
19.6.1 Reliability, Availability and Maintainability Study
19.6.2 Constructability Study
19.6.3 Predictive Maintenance Study
19.6.4 Value Engineering
19.6.5 Process Hazard Analysis
19.6.6 Risk Assessment
19.6.7 Cost Estimation
19.7 Engineering, Procurement and Construction
19.8 Final Project Deliverables
19.9 Key Elements of Project Management
19.9.1 Project Execution and Progress Monitoring
19.9.2 Resource Management
19.9.3 Project Scope Management Plan
19.9.4 Stakeholders Management
19.9.5 Project Cost Management
19.10 Summary
References
Acronyms
Exercises
Chapter 20 Process Safety in Waste Heat Recovery Projects
20.1 Overview
20.2 Lessons from Past Process Safety Incidents
20.3 Process Safety Reviews for WHR projects
20.4 Risk Assessment and Risk Mitigation
20.5 Preliminary Hazard Review during Pre-FEED or Conceptual Design
20.5.1 Inherently Safer Design Review
20.5.2 What-If Check or Process Safety Checklists
20.5.3 Plot Plan and Layout Review
20.5.4 Area Classification Reviews
20.5.5 Pressure Relief System Considerations
20.5.6 Fire Safety for WHR Projects
20.6 Process Hazard Analysis
20.6.1 Hazard and Operability Study
20.6.2 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
20.6.3 Instrumented Protective Systems
20.6.4 Fault Tree Analysis
20.6.5 Event Tree Analysis
20.6.6 Layers of Protection Analysis
20.7 Safety Instrumented System Life Cycle
20.8 Revision of Process Safety Information and Operator Training
20.9 Management of Change
20.10 Pre-Start-Up Safety Review
20.11 Summary
References
Acronyms
Exercises
Appendix: Inherently Safer Design Checklist
Index