The disability-adjusted life year (DALY) is a generic measure of health effect that can be used in cost-effectiveness analysis as an alternative to the quality-adjusted life year (QALY). Infectious diseases are one of the major to cause significant losses of DALY and QALY. Human infectious diseases are disorders that are triggered by the micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, or parasites. The majority of such diseases are contagious and create a public health menace. There are several reasons why infectious diseases are deadly diseases, and one of the primary reasons is the drug resistance developed over time. Drug resistance-associated mutations are linked to increasing drug efflux, modifications of the drugs, or their targets. Every year, new drugs are being approved by FDA to treat infectious diseases. Nonetheless, the infectious diseases will undoubtedly persist as permanent and main threats to humanity for now and in the future, primarily due to increased longevity that almost always comes at a cost of impaired immunity.A total of four books are covered under the series of Infectious drug diseases.
- Malarial drug delivery systems
- Tubercular drug delivery systems
- Viral drug delivery systems
- Infectious disease drug delivery systems
The third volume of series is focused on viral drug delivery systems. Typically, virus attaches to the cells (referred as host cell) and releases its DNA or RNA inside the cell. In second stage, virus’s genetic material takes control of the cell and forces it to replicate the virus leading to onset of disease symptoms. DNA class of viruses include Herpes, Papilloma and Adeno viruses. RNA class of viruses include retroviruses, such as HIV immunodeficiency virus and SARS COV – 2 / Corona virus. This book addresses recent developments in viral drug delivery systems. It covers many different aspects of viral infections, ways to treat them using modern drug delivery systems like nano particulate carriers. The choice of viral delivery systems mainly depends upon the type of virus, duration of life cycle, presence of drug resistance, cellular and mucosal interaction of virus, accordingly gene or non-gene drug delivery systems are selected. Besides that, this book also reports global dynamics of viral diseases, future predictions of infection rate, current treatment options, details of drug carriers like nanoemulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, role of biofunctionalization, and phyto-molecules in treatment of viral infections particularly herpes, Covid-19, Ebola, HIV/AIDS, influenza and viral hepatitis.Audiences from a broad range of groups, from researchers, academicians, and public health bodies to regulatory experts, can benefit from the compiled information to learn more about patient needs and current research advances in the field of viral drug delivery research.
Author(s): Ranjita Shegokar, Yashwant Pathak
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 407
City: Cham
Preface
Volume 1: MDDS
Volume 2: TDDS
Volume 3: VDDS
Volume 4: IDDDS
Contents
Global Health and Viral Diseases: Past, Present, and Future
1 Introduction
2 Types of Viral Diseases
3 Viral Diseases Across the World
3.1 Influenza
3.1.1 Prevalence Worldwide/Rate of Infection
3.1.2 Treatments over Time
3.1.3 Vaccine Landscape
3.2 HIV/AIDS
3.2.1 Prevalence Worldwide/Rate of Infection
3.2.2 Treatments over Time
3.2.3 Vaccine Landscape
3.3 HPV
3.3.1 Worldwide Prevalence/Rate of Infection
3.3.2 Treatments over Time
3.4 MMR
3.4.1 Worldwide Prevalence/Rate of Infection
3.4.2 Treatments over Time
3.4.3 Vaccine Landscape
4 Conclusion
References
Drug Resistance in Antiviral Therapy
1 Resistance as an Evolutionary Process
2 Clinical Definition of Antiviral Drug Resistance
3 Antiviral Drug Resistance
3.1 Variation in Viral Resistance Mechanisms
3.2 Resistance to Common Antiviral Agents
4 Identification of Antiviral Drug Resistance
5 Factors Associated with Antiviral Drug Resistance
6 Clinical Implications of Resistance in Viruses
6.1 Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV)
6.2 Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV)
6.3 Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)
7 Conclusion
References
Viral Diseases: Cellular Understanding of Diseases
1 Introduction
2 Background
2.1 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
2.1.1 DNA Biology and Structure
2.2 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Viruses
2.2.1 RNA Biology and Structure
2.3 Retroviruses
2.3.1 Retrovirus Biology and Structure
3 DNA Viruses: Herpes Simplex Keratitis (HSK)
3.1 Virus Pathogenesis
3.2 Virus Biology and Structure
3.3 Clinical Cases
4 RNA Viruses: Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV)
4.1 Virus Pathogenesis
4.2 Virus Biology and Structure
4.3 Clinical Cases
5 Retroviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 (HIV-1)
5.1 Virus Pathogenesis
5.2 Virus Biology and Structure
5.3 Clinical Cases
6 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
Viral Infections: Current Treatment Options
1 Introduction
2 Virus Classification
2.1 DNA Viruses
2.2 RNA Viruses
2.3 Reverse Transcriptase (RT) Viruses
3 Different Types of Viral Infection
3.1 Respiratory Tract Infection
3.2 Gastrointestinal Tract Infection
3.3 Hepatic Infection
3.4 Skin Infection
3.5 Placental and Fetal Infection
3.6 Viral Infection in the Nervous System
4 Diagnosis of Viral Infection
5 Antiviral Drug Development Strategies
6 Current Treatment of Viral Infection
6.1 Method to Treat Viral Infection
6.1.1 Treatment of Symptoms
6.1.2 Antiviral Therapy
6.2 Herbal Treatment as an Antiviral Therapy
7 Conclusion
References
Mucosal Targeting Strategies for Antiviral Drug Delivery
1 Introduction
2 Drug Treatment of Viral Infections
2.1 Hepatitis B Virus Infection
2.2 Influenza Virus Infection
2.3 Herpes Simplex Virus Infection
3 The Role of Mucosal Targeting in Antiviral Drug Delivery
3.1 Advantages of Nano-enabled Mucosal Delivery Carriers
4 Mucoadhesive Polysaccharide-Based Nanoparticles
5 Lipoidal Systems for Mucosal Delivery
5.1 The Use of Micro- and Nanoemulsions as Mucosal Targeted Delivery System
5.2 Liposomes
5.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
5.4 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
6 The Use of Mucoadhesive Oral Delivery Nanosystems
7 The Use of Mucoadhesive Nasal Delivery Systems
8 Mucoadhesive Inhalation Delivery Systems
9 Mucoadhesive Nasal Sprays
10 Conclusion
References
Micro- and Nanoemulsions in Antiviral Treatment
1 Introduction
2 Challenges Encountered with Antiviral Drugs
3 Micro-/Nanoemulsions as Drug Carriers
4 Conclusion
References
Novel Formulation Approaches for Treatment of Ebola Virus
1 Introduction
2 Recent Clinical Trials on Ebola
2.1 Potential Therapeutic Targets
2.2 Possible Therapeutic Targets of Ebola Virus
3 Theragnostic Approaches
4 Diagnosis
5 Conclusion
References
Drug Delivery Options for Treatment of Ebola Infection
1 Introduction
1.1 Ebola Biology
1.1.1 Taxonomy
1.1.2 Genome and Structure
1.1.3 Pathogenesis
Cellular Growth and Viral Invasion
Genome: Transcription, Translation, and Replication
Assembling and Releasing
1.2 Preclinical Studies: Rodents and Small Animals Mimicking Disease Condition
2 Pharma Development for the Treatment of Ebola Virus (EBOV)
2.1 Drug Candidates
2.1.1 Favipiravir
2.1.2 BCX4430
2.1.3 Brincidofovir
2.1.4 TKM-Ebola
2.1.5 Inmazeb
2.2 Advances in Drug Delivery
2.2.1 Nanotechnology-Based Antiviral Formulations
Lipid-Based Nanoformulations
Liposomes
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs)
Lipid Nanoparticles for siRNA Delivery
2.2.2 Polymer-Based Nanoformulations
Polymeric Micelles
Polymeric Nanoparticles
Nanospheres
Inorganic-Based Nanoformulations
Gold Nanoparticles
Silver Nanoparticles
Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
Polymer-Lipid Hybrid (PLH or LPH) Nanoformulations
Biomimetic Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoformulation
Stimuli-Based Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoformulation
Multifunctional Lipid-Polymer Hybrid (LPH) Nanoformulation
Graphene-Based Nanomaterials
2.2.3 Polymer Drug Conjugates
2.2.4 Cyclodextrin-Based Delivery Systems
2.3 Small-Molecule Therapeutics in Combating EBOV Infection
2.4 Novel Antiviral Approaches and Developments for EBOV
2.5 Plant-Based Drugs
3 Clinical Trials and Observational Studies of Ebola Therapeutics
4 Challenges in Drug Discovery and Development
5 Conclusion
References
Polymers for Biosensing Applications in Viral Detection and Diagnosis
1 Introduction
2 Various Strategies for Virus Biosensing and Diagnosis
2.1 Sensing of Intact Virus Particles
2.2 Sensing of Virus Nucleic Acids
2.3 Sensing of Viral Antibodies
2.4 Sensing of Viral Antigens
2.5 Electronic Nose for Viral Diagnosis
3 Techniques of Virus Detection Using Polymers
3.1 Electrochemical-Based Virus Detection
3.2 Impedance Measurement for Virus Detection
3.3 Electrical Resistance-Based Biosensor for Virus Detection
3.4 Microfluidic Detection of Virus
3.5 RT-qPCR-Based Virus Detection
3.6 Cyclic Voltammetry-Based Biosensor for Virus Detection
3.7 Differential Pulse Voltammetry-Based Biosensor for Virus Detection
3.8 Conductometric-Based Biosensor for Virus Detection
3.9 Field-Effect-Transistor-Based Biosensor for Virus Detection
3.10 Fluorescence-Based Biosensor for Virus Detection
3.11 Colorimetric-Based Biosensor for Virus Detection
4 Conclusion
References
Nanotechnology: A Stepping Stone Toward Viral Hepatitis Treatment and Prevention in Children and Adults
1 Introduction
1.1 Viral Hepatitis
1.1.1 Hepatitis A
1.1.2 Hepatitis B
1.1.3 Hepatitis C
1.2 Hepatitis in Children
1.3 Nanotechnology
2 Vaccinations
2.1 Hepatitis A Vaccine
2.1.1 History of Timeline of Hepatitis A Vaccines
2.1.2 Types of Hepatitis A Vaccinations
2.1.3 Side Effects
2.2 Hepatitis B Vaccine
2.2.1 History of Timeline of Hepatitis B Vaccines
2.2.2 Types of Hepatitis B Vaccinations
New Oral Vaccine
2.2.3 Side Effects
2.3 Hepatitis C Vaccine
2.3.1 Potentials for HCV Vaccine
3 Hepatitis B Treatment
4 Hepatitis C Treatment
5 A Possible Cure for Chronic Hepatitis B Virus
5.1 Introduction to the Chronic Hepatitis B Virus
5.2 Genome Editing
5.2.1 CRISPR-Cas9
6 Conclusion
References
Recent Developments in the Treatment of Influenza
1 Influenza Virus and Disease Progression
1.1 Influenza Strains and Subtypes
1.2 Influenza Disease Course and Diagnostic Methods
1.3 Virus Transmission and Notable Pandemics
1.4 Influenza Pathophysiology
1.5 Influenza Replication Cycle
2 Influenza Virus Genomic Variability and Antigenic Shift and Drift
2.1 Antigenic Drift
2.2 Antigenic Shift
3 Preventative Medicine: Influenza Vaccine Development
3.1 Influenza Vaccine
3.2 Influenza Vaccine Paradigms
3.2.1 Whole Inactivated Influenza Vaccine (WIIV)
3.2.2 Split-Virion Influenza Vaccines
3.2.3 Subunit Influenza Vaccines
3.2.4 Virosome Influenza Vaccines
3.2.5 Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccines (LAIV)
3.2.6 Viral Vectored Influenza Vaccines
3.3 Universal Flu Vaccine
4 Neuraminidase Inhibitors Used in Influenza Treatment
4.1 Neuraminidase Inhibitors
4.2 Approved Neuraminidase Inhibitors
4.3 Neuraminidase Inhibitor Resistance
4.4 Adamantane Antivirals
5 Baloxavir: A First in Class Medication
5.1 Background
5.2 Mechanism of Action
5.3 Clinical Uses
5.4 Pharmacology
5.5 Side Effects
5.6 Resistance
6 Drugs for the Treatment of Hypercytokinemia
6.1 Definition
6.2 Significance in Influenza
6.3 Clinical Features
6.4 Pathogenesis
6.5 Pharmacology
7 Drugs for Treatment of Flu Symptoms
7.1 Neuraminidase Inhibitors
7.2 Cap-Dependent Endonuclease Inhibitors
7.3 Treatment Indications
8 Drugs in Development and Future Research Directives
8.1 Cyanovirin-N
8.2 Conjugated Sialidase (DAS181)
8.3 Thiazolides
8.4 Small Interfering RNA (siRNA)
9 Conclusion
References
COVID-19: Molecular Pathogenesis and Prospective Therapeutic Interventions
1 COVID-19: A Global Emergency
2 Molecular Basis of Pathogenesis of COVID-19 Infection
2.1 Virology of SARS-CoV-2
2.2 Role of ACE2 Receptor in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
2.3 Pathogenesis and Immunopathology of COVID-19
2.4 Coronavirus Variants and Mutations
3 Diagnosis of COVID-19
4 Treatment Strategies for COVID-19
4.1 Repurposed Drug-Based Therapy
4.2 Plasma-Based Therapy
4.3 Vaccine-Based Therapy
4.3.1 Mechanisms of Vaccines Against SARS-CoV-2
mRNA-Based Vaccines
Adenovirus-Based Vaccines
5 Nanotechnological Interventions in COVID-19 Vaccine Development
6 COVID-19 Global Vaccination Campaign
7 Conclusion and Future Prognosis
References
Nano-Drug Delivery Systems for COVID-19 Drug Delivery
1 Introduction
2 Role of Novel Drug Delivery in COVID-19
3 Nanostructured Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NNDDS)
3.1 Liposomes
3.2 Nanoemulsions
3.3 Micelle
3.4 Lipid Nanoparticles
3.5 Polymeric Nanoparticles
4 Conclusion
References
Exploring the Link Between Malaria and COVID-19
1 Background
2 Morbidity and Mortality of COVID-19
3 Malaria vs. COVID-19 Presentations
4 Syndemic of Malaria and COVID-19
5 Pathogenesis of Malaria and COVID-19
6 Control Mechanisms of COVID-19 Pandemic in Malaria Endemic
7 Interferons Efficacy in Malaria and COVID-19 Outbreak
8 Therapeutic and Preventive Roles of Hydroxychloroquine and Chloroquine
9 Chloroquine (CQ)
10 Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ)
11 In Vitro and In Vivo Comparison of Antiviral Activity of CQ and HCQ
12 Clinical Trials of Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine
13 Synopsis
14 Conclusion
References
The Use of Azithromycin and Lopinavir-Ritonavir in the Treatment of COVID-19
1 Introduction
2 Etiology
2.1 The Entry Stage of the Virus
2.2 Incubation Stage
2.3 Stage of Infection
3 Clinical Pathology of COVID-19
3.1 Clinical Symptoms
3.2 Clinical Laboratorium Test
4 Azithromycin for COVID-19 Infection
4.1 Physicochemical Characteristics of Azithromycin
4.2 Action Mechanisms for COVID-19
4.3 The Use of Azithromycin in COVID-19 Patients
5 Lopinavir-Ritonavir for COVID-19 Infection
5.1 Physicochemical Characteristics of Lopinavir-Ritonavir
5.2 Mechanism of Action Lopinavir-Ritonavir for COVID-19 Therapy
5.3 The Use of Lopinavir-Ritonavir in COVID-19 Patients
6 Antibiotic/Antiviral Combination as a Therapy for COVID-19 Infection: In Vitro Study
6.1 Evaluation of Antivirus Efficacy
6.2 Cell Cytotoxicity Test for Safety Evaluation
6.2.1 Analysis of Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Marker Levels on Cells Co-incubated with Virus
7 Antibiotic/Antiviral Combination as Therapy for COVID-19 Infection: Clinical Study
7.1 Evaluation of Antiviral Study
7.2 Safe Use Evaluation by Monitoring Adverse Events
7.3 Evaluation of Pro- and Anti-inflammatory Marker Levels in Patients
7.4 Molecular Docking Study
8 Conclusion
References
Current Strategies to Combat COVID-19
1 Introduction
2 Diagnosis
3 Therapeutics
3.1 Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine
3.2 Lopinavir/Ritonavir
3.3 Remdesivir
3.4 Ribavirin
3.5 Favipiravir
3.6 Arbidol
3.7 Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers
4 Convalescent Plasma
5 Prevention
6 Conclusion
References
Phytomolecules and Novel Drug Delivery Approach for COVID-19
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Pathology and Current Pharmacological Intervention for COVID-19
4 Overview of the Phytoproducts
4.1 Ashwagandha
4.2 Tulsi
4.3 Curcumin
4.4 Cannabidiol
4.5 Giloy
5 Prospective Phyto-ingredients for COVID-19 and Their Possible Mode of Action
6 Herbal Formulations Used in Market for COVID-19
6.1 Dietary Supplements, Micronutrients, and Herbal Medicines
6.2 Zinc Supplementation
6.3 Essential Oils
6.4 Glycyrrhizin
7 Intention for Newer Novel Drug Delivery Approach
7.1 Gap or Loopholes for Phytomolecule in Terms of Safety and Effectiveness; Quality Issues, and Analytical Challenges for the Traditional Medicines [105]
7.2 Potentials of Novel Herbal Drug Delivery System for Traditional Medicines
8 Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems Have Proven Their Potential in Controlled and Targeted Drug Delivery
9 Novel Technologies for Drug Delivery Approach [111]
10 Conclusion and Future Aspects
References
Index
