Tropical Diseases in China: Schistosomiasis

Preface
Contents
Contributors
1: History of Schistosomiasis Japonica in China
1.1 Discovery of Schistosomiasis in China
1.2 History of the National Schistosomiasis Control Programme in China
1.3 Epidemiological Features of Schistosomiasis in Different Endemic Regions in China
1.3.1 Lake and Marshland Regions
1.3.2 Plain Regions with Waterway Networks
1.3.3 Hilly and Mountainous Regions
1.4 Burden and Impact of Schistosomiasis
1.4.1 Individual Impact
1.4.2 Burden of Disease
References
2: Endemicity, Diagnosis and Treatment of Schistosomiasis in China
2.1 Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute Schistosomiasis
2.1.1 Epidemic Features of Acute Schistosomiasis
2.1.2 Symptomatology
2.1.3 Detection of Acute Schistosomiasis
2.1.4 Diagnostic Criteria
2.1.5 Treatment
2.1.6 Case Study
2.2 Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Schistosomiasis
2.2.1 Symptomatology
2.2.2 Detection of Chronic Schistosomiasis
2.2.3 Diagnositic Criteria
2.2.4 Treatment
2.3 Diagnosis and Treatment of Advanced Schistosomiasis
2.3.1 Clinical Subtypes
2.3.2 Clinical Features
2.3.3 Diagnostic Approach
2.3.4 Diagnostic Criteria
2.3.5 Treatment
2.3.6 Case Study
References
3: Biology and Control of Oncomelania Snail in China
3.1 Biology of Oncomelania Snail
3.1.1 Taxonomic Category
3.1.2 Morphology
3.1.3 Ecology
3.2 Distribution and Survey of O. hupenesis in China
3.2.1 Distribution Characteristics
3.2.2 Factors Influencing Snail Distribution
3.2.3 Snail Detection
3.2.4 Snail Monitoring and Surveillance
3.2.5 Detection of Infected Snails
3.3 Control of Oncomelania hupensis
3.3.1 General Concept for Snail Control
3.3.2 Physical Control of Oncomelania
3.3.3 Chemical Control of Oncomelania
3.3.4 Biological Control of Oncomelania
References
4: Progress on Schistosomiasis Research in China
4.1 Research Advances on Diagnostics
4.1.1 Historical Review of Diagnostic Tools in China
Parasitological Approaches
Stool Examination
Tissue Biopsy
Imaging Techniques
Immunological Tests
The Intradermal Test (ID)
The Circumoval Precipitin Test (COPT)
The Indirect Hemagglutination Assay (IHA)
The Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
Rapid Diagnostic Kits
Techniques Based on Molecular Biotechnology
4.1.2 Diagnostic Applications in the National Schistosomiasis Control Programme
The Morbidity Control Stage
The Infection Control Stage
The Transmission Control Stage
The Stage of Transmission Interruption and Elimination
4.1.3 Quality Control
4.1.4 Current Challenges
4.2 Advances in Treatment
4.2.1 Praziquantel: A Milestone in Schistosomicidal Treatment
Mechanisms of Action of PZQ
Enantioseparation and Schistosomicidal Efficacy of PZQ
Formulation and Route of Administration for PZQ
Lipid-Based Delivery Systems
Transdermal Delivery of PZQ
Injective Administration of PZQ
Rectal Administration of PZQ
Sustained-Release PZQ Tablet
Film-Coated PZQ Tablets
Evolution of Chemotherapy Model Based on PZQ in China
Introduction Stage
Clinical Use Stage
Chemertherapy Stage
Mass Chemertherapy Stage
Selective Chemotherapy Stage
Human and Animal Synchronous Chemotherapy Stage
4.2.2 Artemisinin: A Novel Prevention Drug for S. Japonicum
Artemether
Artemether Monotherapy
Artemether–PZQ Combination
Recommended Treatment Regimen and Contraindications
Artesunate
Artesunate Monotherapy
Artesunate-PZQ Combination Therapy
Recommended Treatment Option
Concluding Remarks on Artemisinin
4.3 Advances in Molluscicides Application
4.3.1 Chemical Molluscicides
Sodium Pentachlorophenate
Niclosamide
Rongbao and Rongya
META-Li
Other Chemical Molluscicides
4.3.2 Plant-Derived Molluscicides
Saponins
Alkaloids
Flavonoids
4.3.3 New Types of Molluscicidal Compounds
Plant-Derived Molluscicide
(Chloroacetyl) Catechol
Buddleja Lindleyana
4.3.4 Conclusion
4.4 Surveillance and Early Warning
4.4.1 Surveillance System
Coverage
Intensity
Standardization
Case Definition
Data Collection
Data Processing and Management
Analysis and Interpretation
Dissemination
Evaluation
Schistosomiasis Surveillance Systems in China
4.4.2 Early Warning System
Basic Conception
Conception and Classification
Definitions and Features of Early Warning Indicators
The Definition, Characteristics, and Component Framework of an Early Warning Mechanism
Prediction Methods
Qualitative Prediction
Quantitative Prediction
Integrated Prediction Method
4.4.3 Application of Prediction and Early Warning Methods in Schistosomiasis
Prediction of Transmission Status of Schistosomiasis Japonica at Province and County Level
Predication of Snail-Infested Areas Based on Ecological Model
Prediction of Potential Transmission Areas of Schistosomiasis Japonica under the Scenarios of Environmental Changes
4.5 Applicable Technology
4.5.1 Applicable Technology for Infection Source Control
4.5.2 Applicable Technology for Snail Control
A Machine for Snail Control Integrating Mechanized Vegetation Cleaning and Automatic Mollusciciding
A Rapid Niclosamide Detector
A Snail Control Approach Covering by Black Plastic Film
4.5.3 Applicable Technology for Detection and Monitoring S. Japonicum Infections
An Intelligent Detector for S. Japonicum-Infested Water Using Sentinel Mice
A Kit to Detect S. Japonicum DNA of Oncomelanid Snails
Internet+ and Google Earth-Based Surveillance and Response System
4.5.4 Applicable Technology for Health Promotion
References
5: China’s Experiences in the Combat of Schistosomiasis
5.1 Evolution of Schistosomiasis Control Strategies in China
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Schistosomiasis Control Strategies in China
Preparation Stage (1950–1955)
Preparation for Future Large-Scale Control Programmes
Achievements and Lessons Learnt
Mass-Campaign Stage Focused on Snail Control (1956–1985)
Snail Control Strategy
Achievements and Lessons Learnt
Morbidity Control Stage Boosted by International Cooperation (1986–2003)
Morbidity Control Strategy
Achievements and Lessons
Integrated Strategy to Block Schistosomiasis Transmission (2004–Present)
Comprehensive Strategy of Blocking Schistosomiasis Transmission
Achievements and Lessons Learnt
5.1.3 Conclusion
5.2 Development of Water Conservancy Projects for the Control of S. japonicum in China
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 The Concept of Schistosomiasis Control Through Water Conservancy
5.2.3 The Guiding Principle of Schistosomiasis Control Through Water Conservancy
5.2.4 Building Water Resource Projects for Schistosomiasis Control: Current Approaches
Measures Taken by Water Conservancy Engineering Facilities to Prevent Snail Diffusion or Barriers Erected to Prevent People and Livestock from Entering Snail Habitats
Preventing the Spread of Oncomelanid Snails Through the Use of a Blocking Net
The Settling Basin for O. hupensis
Removing the Middle Layer of Water Without O. hupensis
Building a Platform for O. hupensis Control
Building an Isolation Ditch for Preventing People and Livestock from Entering Snail Habitats
Measures of Water Conservancy Project Combined with Snail Habitat Modification for Snail Control
The Soil or Sand Burying Method for Snail Control
Soil Cement Hardening for Snail Control
Falling the Bottomland or Elevating the Bottomland
5.2.5 Water Conservancy Cases in the Endemic Areas of China
Snail Control and Flood Control Engineering on the Fu River, Yangxin County, Hubei Province, China
Snail Control Project for Removing the Middle Layer of Water in the West Sluice in Junshan District, Hunan Province, China
Snail Control Engineering of the Wangjiatai Sluice in Yingcheng City, Hubei Province, China
5.2.6 Project Management and Evaluation After Completion
Assessment of Design and Operation Management of Water Conservancy Combined with Schistosomiasis Prevention
Assessment of the Effects of Water Conservancy for Snail Control
5.2.7 Conclusions and Perspectives
5.3 Countermeasures for Controlling Schistosomiasis in Domestic Animals in China
5.3.1 The Epidemic Status and Impact of Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis in China
The Epidemic Status of Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis in China
Early Reports on Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis in China
The Epidemic Status of Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis in China in the 1950s
The Current Status of Schistosomiasis in Domestic Animals in China
The Harmful Effects of Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis in China
The Susceptibility of Different Species of Domestic Animals to S. japonicum Infection in China
The Role of Domestic Animals as Carriers in the Transmission of S. japonicum
5.3.2 Countermeasures for the Control of Schistosomiasis in Domestic Animals in China
The Processes for Controlling Schistosomiasis in Domestic Animals in China
Diagnosis of Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis
Etiological Diagnosis
Serological Diagnosis
Chemotherapy of Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis
Housing of Domestic Animals
Establishment of Safe Pastures and Safe Grazing for Livestock
Banning Livestock Grazing on Marshlands or Hillside Grasslands with Snail Habitats
Quarantine and Monitoring of Domestic Animals from Schistosomiasis-Endemic Areas
Development of a Schistosomiasis Vaccine for Domestic Animals
Other Methods for Controlling Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis
5.3.3 The Main Experiences for Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis Control in China
5.3.4 New Challenges for the Control of Domestic Animal Schistosomiasis in China
5.4 Comprehensive Agricultural Measures for Schistosomiasis Control in China
5.4.1 Agricultural Measures for Reducing the Number of Grazing Ruminants
Replacing Bovine Plowing with Tractor Plowing
Replacing Ruminants with Poultry
Prohibiting Livestock Grazing on Marshlands or Hillsides with Oncomelania Snails
5.4.2 Feces Management
Constructing Biogas Pools
Construction of Septic Tanks for the Treatment of Animal Feces
Stacking Fermentation of the Feces
5.4.3 Comprehensive Agricultural Measures for Snail Control
Changing Rice Paddies to Dry Fields
Rotational Planting of Rice and Other Crops
Cementing Ditches
Building Ponds for Aquatics Breeding
Cultivation of High-Altitude Floodplain
Storing Water to Raise Aquatic Products
5.4.4 Propaganda and Education
5.5 Schistosomiasis Prevention Through Afforestation
5.5.1 Why Does Afforestation Prevent Schistosomiasis?
How Schistosomiasis Prevention through Afforestation Changes Local Farmers’ Lifestyles
5.5.2 The Secrets behind Afforestation Control of Schistosomiasis
Differences Between Impacts of Afforestation on Female and Male Snails
5.5.3 The Main Afforestation Techniques for Schistosomiasis Prevention
Tree Species Selection
Marshland and Lake Regions; Plains Regions with Waterway Networks
Mountainous and Hilly Regions
Choosing Appropriate Areas for Afforestation
Digging Ditches and Drainage; Making Ridges
Suitable Seedlings and Seeds Choice
Marshland and Lake Regions; Plains Regions with Waterway Networks
Mountainous and Hilly Regions
Land Preparation
Marshland and Lake Regions
Plains Regions with Waterway Networks
Mountainous and Hilly Regions
Proper Afforestation Density Design and Afforestation Patterns
In Marshland and Lake Regions
Afforestation Pattern in Marshland and Lake Regions
In Plains Regions with Waterway Networks
In Mountainous and Hilly Regions
Afforestation Regulations, Operation Design, and Afforestation Times
Afforestation Regulations and Operation Design
Afforestation Time
Tending and Managing Forests
Forest Management and Protection
Accompanying Measures
Renewal of Trees
Archive Management
5.5.4 Typical Modes for Schistosomiasis Prevention Through Forestry
Agroforestry Mode
How Afforestation Increases Local people’s Incomes
Forestry and Husbandry Mode
Forestry, Fishery, and Husbandry Mode
Courtyard Forestry Mode
Special Agroforestry Mode
5.5.5 Successful Experiences of Schistosomiasis Prevention through Afforestation
Combination of Economic, Social, and Ecological Effects
Combination of Multiple Departments
Combination of Scientific Research with Practical Education
5.5.6 Planning Schistosomiasis Control through Forestry-Ecological Engineering
References
6: National Plan for Schistosomiasis Control and Achievements
6.1 Public Health Campaign
6.1.1 Patriotic Health Movement
Sanitary Toilets
Biogas Production
6.1.2 Health Education
6.2 Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Schisto­Somiasis in the P.R. China (2016–2025)
6.2.1 Background
6.2.2 Vision, Goals, and Objectives
6.2.3 Guiding Principles
Governmental Leadership and Multi-Sector Collaboration
Comprehensive Interventions Adapted to Local Settings
Empowerment of People and Communities
Sensitive and Effective Surveillance and Response
Improved Capacity for Control and Surveillance
6.2.4 Strategy
Areas with Ongoing Transmission
Areas where Schistosomiasis Has Been Eliminated or Transmission Interrupted
Areas with Potential Risk of Schistosomiasis Transmission
6.2.5 Intervention Package
Interventions from the Health Sector
Screening and Treatment of Schistosomiasis Cases
Clearing and Management of Schistosomiasis Foci
Snail Survey and Control
Construction of Harmless Latrines
Surveillance and Early Warning of Schistosomiasis Emergence
Health Education
Interventions from the Agriculture Sector
Management of Animal Reservoirs
Snail Control in Combination with Agricultural Activities
Surveillance on Animal Schistosomiasis
Interventions from the Water Conservancy Sector
Comprehensive Engineering of Rivers and Lakes
Drainage System Modification Projects
Rural Water Supply Projects
Hydraulic Schistosomiasis Control Projects
Interventions from the Forestry Sector
Planting Forests in Favor of Snail Control and Prevention of Schistosomiasis
Activities to Improve the Effectiveness of Snail Control
Ecological Environment Surveillance
Interventions from the Land Resources Sector
Land Development and Consolidation Engineering
Moving Villages from High Risk Areas
Interventions from Other Related Sectors
6.2.6 Strategic Approaches to Guarantee the Implementation of the Strategic Plan
Governmental Leadership and Coordination among Sectors and Districts
Financial Support
Technical Support
Professional Workforce Support
6.2.7 Monitoring and Evaluation
6.3 Monitoring and Response Systems for Schistosomiasis
6.3.1 The History and Current Status of Schistosomiasis Surveillance Systems
The History of Schistosomiasis Surveillance Systems
The Contents of Schistosomiasis Surveillance Systems
Schistosomiasis Cases
Domestic Animals
Snail Intermediate Hosts
Related Epidemic Factors
The Demand of the Current Schistosomiasis Surveillance Systems
6.3.2 Focus on Surveillance after Schistosomiasis Transmission Control
The Purposes of Surveillance after Transmission Control
Perfecting the Surveillance System after Transmission Control
To Establish the Sensitive and Efficient Surveillance Indicators
To Explore a Comprehensive Surveillance and Management Model
To Develop and Utilize Advanced Techniques and Tools
To Improve Capabilities for Detection of and Responses to Outbreaks
6.3.3 Case Study of the Emergency Response for a Schistosomiasis Outbreak
6.3.4 Conclusion
6.4 The Response Mechanism to the Epidemic Rebound of Schistosomiasis
6.4.1 The Standard for Rebound of Schistosomiasis Epidemics
6.4.2 Factors that Influence the Rebound of Schistosomiasis Epidemics
Biological Factors
Natural Factors
6.4.3 The Measures to Prevent the Rebound of Schistosomiasis Epidemics
Snail Control
Disease Control
Professional Team
Funding Levels
6.4.4 Establishing a Sensitive and Efficient Early Warning Mechanism for Schistosomiasis
Epidemic Focus Disposal
Treatment of Patients
Preventive Chemotherapy for the Population at Risk
Snail Control
Health Education
Safe Water Supply
Manure Management
Personal Protection
Epidemiological Surveys
Case Investigation
Investigation on Epidemic Focus
Investigation of Environmental and Social Factors
6.4.5 Case Study: The Disposal of New Snail Areas Occurring in Xiangyun County, Dali Prefecture, Yunnan Province
Snail Control
Schistosomiasis Surveyed among People and Livestock
Health Education
6.5 Challenges and Requirements Relating to Schisto­Somiasis Elimination and Post-Elimination
6.5.1 Challenges to Eliminating Schistosomiasis and Post-Elimination
Extensive and Complicated Snail Habitats
Management of Different Sources of Infection
Unbalanced Implementation of the Integrated Strategy
Unavailability of Sensitive Tools for Elimination Certification and Surveillance
Weak in Surveillance Capacity and Active Response System
6.5.2 Achieving Elimination and Preventing the Resurgence of Schistosomiasis Post-Elimination
Encouraging Governmental Leadership and Intensifying the Responsibilities of Related Departments
Insisting on a Comprehensive Control Strategy and Intensifying Integrated Interventions
Improving the Surveillance and Response System to Control Risk Factors
Intensifying Health Education and Health Promotion
Strengthening Scientific Research and Capacity Building to Popularization and Implementation of New Techniques
References