Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Cover
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach
Quotes on Ethics
About the Authors
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter One: Introduction and Basic Concepts
1-1: Thermodynamics and Energy
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
1-2: Importance of Dimensions and Units
Some SI and English Units
Dimensional Homogeneity
Unity Conversion Ratios
1-3: Systems and Control Volumes
1-4: Properties of a System
Continuum
1-5: Density and Specific Gravity
1-6: State and Equilibrium
The State Postulate
1-7: Processes and Cycles
The Steady-Flow Process
1-8: Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Temperature Scales
1-9: Pressure
Variation of Pressure with Depth
1-10: Pressure Measurement Devices
The Barometer
The Manometer
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
1-11: Problem-Solving Technique
Step 1: Problem Statement
Step 2: Schematic
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
Engineering Software Packages
Equation Solvers
A Remark on Significant Digits
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Two: Energy, Energy Transfer, and General Energy Analysis
2-1: Introduction
2-2: Forms of Energy
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
More on Nuclear Energy
Mechanical Energy
2-3: Energy Transfer by Heat
Historical Background on Heat
2-4: Energy Transfer by Work
Electrical Work
2-5: Mechanical Forms of Work
Shaft Work
Spring Work
Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars
Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
Nonmechanical Forms of Work
2-6: The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Balance
Energy Change of a System, ΔEsystem
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
2-7: Energy Conversion Efficiencies
Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
2-8: Energy and Environment
Ozone and Smog
Acid Rain
The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate Change
Topic of Special Interest: Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Three: Properties of Pure Substances
3-1: Pure Substance
3-2: Phases of a Pure Substance
3-3: Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances
Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid
Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor
Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure
Some Consequences of Tsat and Psat Dependence
3-4: Property Diagrams for Phase-Change Processes
1 The T-V Diagram
2 The P-V Diagram
Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase
3 The P-T Diagram
The P-V-T Surface
3-5: Property Tables
Enthalpy—A Combination Property
1a Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States
1b Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture
2 Superheated Vapor
3 Compressed Liquid
Reference State and Reference Values
3-6: The Ideal-Gas Equation of State
Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?
3-7: Compressibility FactoróA Measure of Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior
3-8: Other Equations of State
van der Waals Equation of State
Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State
Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State
Virial Equation of State
Topic of Special Interest: Vapor Pressure and Phase Equilibrium
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Four: Energy Analysis of Closed Systems
4-1: Moving Boundary Work
Polytropic Process
4-2: Energy Balance for Closed Systems
Constant-Pressure Processes of Closed Systems
4-3: Specific Heats
4-4: Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases
Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
4-5: Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids
Internal Energy Changes
Enthalpy Changes
Topic of Special Interest: Thermodynamic Aspects of Biological Systems
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Five: Mass and Energy Analysis of Control Volumes
5-1: Conservation of Mass
Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Conservation of Mass Principle
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
Special Case: Incompressible Flow
5-2: Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid
Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid
Energy Transport by Mass
5-3: Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems
5-4: Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
1 Nozzles and Diffusers
2 Turbines and Compressors
3 Throttling Valves
4a Mixing Chambers
4b Heat Exchangers
5 Pipe and Duct Flow
5-5: Energy Analysis of Unsteady-Flow Processes
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Six: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
6-1: Introduction to the Second Law
6-2: Thermal Energy Reservoirs
6-3: Heat Engines
Thermal Efficiency
Can We Save Qout?
The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin-Planck Statement
6-4: Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
Coefficient of Performance
Heat Pumps
Performance of Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius Statement
Equivalence of the Two Statements
6-5: Perpetual-Motion Machines
6-6: Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Irreversibilities
Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
6-7: The Carnot Cycle
The Reversed Carnot Cycle
6-8: The Carnot Principles
6-9: The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
6-10: The Carnot Heat Engine
The Quality of Energy
Quantity versus Quality in Daily Life
6-11: The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Topic of Special Interest: Household Refrigerators
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Seven: Entropy
7-1: Clausius Inequality and Entropy
A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes
7-2: Entropy Generation and the Increase of Entropy Principle
Some Remarks About Entropy
7-3: Entropy Change of Pure Substances
7-4: Isentropic Processes
7-5: Property Diagrams Involving Entropy
7-6: What Is Entropy?
The Concept of Entropy in Daily Life
7-7: Differential Entropy Change Relations
7-8: Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids
7-9: The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Eight: Entropy Analysis
8-1: Reversible Steady-Flow Work
Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume the Least Work When the Process Is Reversible
8-2: Minimizing the Compressor Work
Multistage Compression with Intercooling
8-3: Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices
Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines
Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps
Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles
8-4: Entropy Balance
Entropy Change of a System, Ssystem
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
Entropy Generation, Sgen
8-5: Entropy Balance for Closed Systems
Entropy Generation Associated with a Heat Transfer Process
8-6: Entropy Balance for Control Volumes
Topic of Special Interest: Reducing the Cost of Compressed Air
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Nine: Exergy
9-1: Exergy: Work Potential of Energy
Exergy (Work Potential) Associated with Kinetic and Potential Energy
9-2: Reversible Work and Irreversibility
9-3: Second-Law Efficiency
9-4: Exergy Change of a System
Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow (or Closed System) Exergy
Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream) Exergy
9-5: Exergy Transfer by Heat, Work, and Mass
Exergy Transfer by Heat, Q
Exergy Transfer by Work, W
Exergy Transfer by Mass, m
9-6: The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction
Exergy Destruction
9-7: Exergy Balance: Closed Systems
9-8: Exergy Balance: Control Volumes
Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
Reversible Work
Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices
Topic of Special Interest: Implications of the Second-Law Concepts in Daily Life
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Ten: Gas Power Cycles
10-1: Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles
10-2: The Carnot Cycle and Its Value in Engineering
10-3: Air-Standard Assumptions
10-4: An Overview of Reciprocating Engines
10-5: Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
10-6: Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines
10-7: Stirling and Ericsson Cycles
10-8: Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines
Development of Gas Turbines
Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones
10-9: The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration
10-10: The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration
10-11: Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles
Modifications to Turbojet Engines
10-12: Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles
Topic of Special Interest: Saving Fuel and Money by Driving Sensibly
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Eleven:Vapor and Combined Power Cycles
11-1: The Carnot Vapor Cycle
11-2: Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
11-3: Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized Ones
11-4: How Can We Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle?
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
11-5: The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
11-6: The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
Open Feedwater Heaters
Closed Feedwater Heaters
11-7: Second-Law Analysis of Vapor Power Cycles
11-8: Cogeneration
11-9: Combined Gas-Vapor Power Cycles
Topic of Special Interest: Binary Vapor Cycles
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Twelve: Refrigeration Cycles
12-1: Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
12-2: The Reversed Carnot Cycle
12-3: The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
12-4: Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
12-5: Second-Law Analysis of Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
12-6: Selecting the Right Refrigerant
12-7: Heat Pump Systems
12-8: Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems
Cascade Refrigeration Systems
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single Compressor
Liquefaction of Gases
12-9: Gas Refrigeration Cycles
12-10: Absorption Refrigeration Systems
Topic of Special Interest: Thermoelectric Power Generation and Refrigeration Systems
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Thirteen: Thermodynamic Property Relations
13-1: A Little MathóPartial Derivatives and Associated Relations
Partial Differentials
Partial Differential Relations
13-2: The Maxwell Relations
13-3: The Clapeyron Equation
13-4: General Relations for du, dh, ds, cv, and cp
Internal Energy Changes
Enthalpy Changes
Entropy Changes
Specific Heats cv and cp
13-5: The Joule-Thomson Coefficient
13-6: The Δh, Δu, and Δs of Real Gases
Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases
Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases
Entropy Changes of Real Gases
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Fourteen: Gas Mixtures
14-1: Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole Fractions
14-2: P-v-T Behavior of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases
Ideal-Gas Mixtures
Real-Gas Mixtures
14-3: Properties of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases
Ideal-Gas Mixtures
Real-Gas Mixtures
Topic of Special Interest: Chemical Potential and the Separation Work of Mixtures
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Fifteen: Gas-Vapor Mixtures and Air-Conditioning
15-1: Dry and Atmospheric Air
15-2: Specific and Relative Humidity of air
15-3: Dew-Point Temperature
15-4: Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures
15-5: The Psychrometric Chart
15-6: Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning
15-7: Air-Conditioning Processes
Simple Heating and Cooling (w = constant)
Heating with Humidification
Cooling with Dehumidification
Evaporative Cooling
Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams
Wet Cooling Towers
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Sixteen: Chemical Reactions
16-1: Fuels and Combustion
16-2: Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes
16-3: Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of Combustion
16-4: First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems
Steady-Flow Systems
Closed Systems
16-5: Adiabatic Flame Temperature
16-6: Entropy Change of Reacting Systems
16-7: Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems
Topic of Special Interest: Fuel Cells
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Seventeen: Chemical and Phase Equilibrium
17-1: Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium
17-2: The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas Mixtures
17-3: Some Remarks About the KP of Ideal-Gas Mixtures
17-4: Chemical Equilibrium for Simultaneous Reactions
17-5: Variation of KP with Temperature
17-6: Phase Equilibrium
Phase Equilibrium for a Single-Component System
The Phase Rule
Phase Equilibrium for a Multicomponent System
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Chapter Eighteen: Compressible Flow
18-1: Stagnation Properties
18-2: Speed of Sound and Mach Number
18-3: One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
18-4: Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
18-5: Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shocks
Oblique Shocks
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves
18-6: Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction (Rayleigh Flow)
Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow
Choked Rayleigh Flow
18-7: Steam Nozzles
Summary
References and Suggested Readings
Problems
Appendix One: Property Tables and Charts (Si Units)
Table A-1: Molar mass, gas constant, and critical-point properties
Table A-2: Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases
Table A-3: Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods
Table A-4: Saturated wateróTemperature table
Table A-5: Saturated wateróPressure table
Table A-6: Superheated water
Table A-7: Compressed liquid water
Table A-8: Saturated ice-water vapor
Figure A-9: T-s diagram for water
Figure A-10: Mollier diagram for water
Table A-11: Saturated refrigerant-134a—Temperature table
Table A-12: Saturated refrigerant-134aóPressure table
Table A-13: Superheated refrigerant-134a
Figure A-14: P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a
Figure A-15: Nelson-Obert generalized compressibility chart
Table A-16: Properties of the atmosphere at high altitude
Table A-17: Ideal-gas properties of air
Table A-18: Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2
Table A-19: Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2
Table A-20: Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, CO2
Table A-21: Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide, CO
Table A-22: Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, H2
Table A-23: Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, H2O
Table A-24: Ideal-gas properties of monatomic oxygen, O
Table A-25: Ideal-gas properties of hydroxyl, OH
Table A-26: Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of formation, and absolute entropy at 25°C, 1 atm
Table A-27: Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons
Table A-28: Natural logarithms of the equilibrium constant Kp
Figure A-29: Generalized enthalpy departure chart
Figure A-30: Generalized entropy departure chart
Figure A-31: Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure
Table A-32: One-dimensional isentropic compressible-flow functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4
Table A-33: One-dimensional normal-shock functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4
Table A-34: Rayleigh flow functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4
Appendix Two: Property Tables and Charts (English Units)
Table A-1E: Molar mass, gas constant, and critical-point properties
Table A-2E: Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases
Table A-3E: Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods
Table A-4E: Saturated wateróTemperature table
Table A-5E: Saturated wateróPressure table
Table A-6E: Superheated water
Table A-7E: Compressed liquid water
Table A-8E: Saturated ice-water vapor
Figure A-9E: T-s diagram for water
Figure A-10E: Mollier diagram for water
Table A-11E: Saturated refrigerant-134a—Temperature table
Table A-12E: Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure table
Table A-13E: Superheated refrigerant-134a
Figure A-14E: P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a
Table A-16E: Properties of the atmosphere at high altitude
Table A-17E: Ideal-gas properties of air
Table A-18E: Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2
Table A-19E: Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2
Table A-20E: Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, CO2
Table A-21E: Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide, CO
Table A-22E: Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, H2
Table A-23E: Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, H2O
Table A-26E: Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of formation, and absolute entropy at 77°F, 1 atm
Table A-27E: Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons
Figure A-31E: Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure
Index
Nomenclature
Conversion Factors