Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Contents
Chapter 1 Problems
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Measurement Methods
1.1 Introduction
1.2 General Measurement System
Sensor and Transducer
Signal-Conditioning Stage
Output Stage
General Template for a Measurement System
1.3 Experimental Test Plan
Variables
Noise and Interference
Randomization
Replication and Repetition
Concomitant Methods
1.4 Calibration
Static Calibration
Dynamic Calibration
Static Sensitivity
Range and Span
Resolution
Accuracy and Error
Random and Systematic Errors and Uncertainty
Sequential Test
Hysteresis
Random Test
Linearity Error
Sensitivity and Zero Errors
Instrument Repeatability
Reproducibility
Instrument Precision
Overall Instrument Error and Instrument Uncertainty
Verification and Validation
1.5 Standards
Primary Unit Standards
Base Dimensions and Their Units
Derived Units
Hierarchy of Standards
Test Standards and Codes
1.6 Presenting Data
Rectangular Coordinate Format
Semilog Coordinate Format
Full-Log Coordinate Format
Significant Digits
Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 2 Problems
Chapter 2 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Input/Output Signal Concepts
Generalized Behavior
Classification of Waveforms
Signal Waveforms
2.3 Signal Analysis
Signal Root-Mean-Square Value
Discrete Time or Digital Signals
Direct Current Offset
2.4 Signal Amplitude and Frequency
Periodic Signals
Frequency Analysis
Fourier Series and Coefficients
Fourier Coefficients
Special Case: Functions with T = 2?
Even and Odd Functions
2.5 Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum
Discrete Fourier Transform
Analysis of Signals in Frequency Space
Summary
References
Suggested Reading
Nomenclature
Chapter 3 Problems
Chapter 3 Measurement System Behavior
3.1 Introduction
3.2 General Model for a Measurement System
Dynamic Measurements
Measurement System Model
3.3 Special Cases of the General System Model
Zero-Order Systems
First-Order Systems
Second-Order Systems
3.4 Transfer Functions
3.5 Phase Linearity
3.6 Multiple-Function Inputs
3.7 Coupled Systems
3.8 Summary
References
Nomenclature
Subscripts
Chapter 4 Problems
Chapter 4 Probability and Statistics
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Statistical Measurement Theory
Probability Density Functions
4.3 Describing the Behavior of a Population
4.4 Statistics of Finite-Sized Data Sets
Standard Deviation of the Means
Repeated Tests and Pooled Data
4.5 Hypothesis Testing
4.6 Chi-Squared Distribution
Precision Interval in a Sample Variance
Goodness-of-Fit Test
4.7 Regression Analysis
Least-Squares Regression Analysis
Linear Polynomials
4.8 Data Outlier Detection
4.9 Number of Measurements Required
4.10 Monte Carlo Simulations
Summary
References
Nomenclature
Chapter 5 Problems
Chapter 5 Uncertainty Analysis
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Measurement Errors
5.3 Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis
Combining Elemental Errors: RSS Method
Design-Stage Uncertainty
5.4 Identifying Error Sources
Calibration Errors
Data-Acquisition Errors
Data-Reduction Errors
5.5 Systematic and Random Errors and Standard Uncertainties
Systematic Error
Random Error
Other Ways Used to Classify Error and Uncertainty
5.6 Uncertainty Analysis: Multi-Variable Error Propagation
Propagation of Error
Approximating a Sensitivity Index
Sequential Perturbation
Monte Carlo Method
5.7 Advanced-Stage Uncertainty Analysis
Zero-Order Uncertainty
Higher-Order Uncertainty
Nth-Order Uncertainty
5.8 Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
Propagation of Elemental Errors
Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result
5.9 Correction for Correlated Errors
5.10 Nonsymmetrical Systematic Uncertainty Interval
Summary
References
Nomenclature
Chapter 6 Problems
Chapter 6 Analog Electrical Devices and Measurements
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Analog Devices: Current Measurements
Direct Current
Alternating Current
6.3 Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements
Analog Voltage Meters
Oscilloscope
Potentiometer
6.4 Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements
Ohmmeter Circuits
Bridge Circuits
Null Method
Deflection Method
6.5 Loading Errors and Impedance Matching
Loading Errors for Voltage-Dividing Circuit
Interstage Loading Errors
6.6 Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers
6.7 Analog Signal Conditioning: Special-Purpose Circuits
Analog Voltage Comparator
Sample-and-Hold Circuit
Charge Amplifier
4–20 mA Current Loop
Multivibrator and Flip-Flop Circuits
6.8 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters
Butterworth Filter Design
Improved Butterworth Filter Designs
Bessel Filter Design
Active Filters
6.9 Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires
Ground and Ground Loops
Shields
Connecting Wires
Summary
References
Nomenclature
Chapter 7 Problems
Chapter 7 Sampling, Digital Devices, and Data Acquisition
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sampling Concepts
Sample Rate
Alias Frequencies
Amplitude Ambiguity
Leakage
Waveform Fidelity
7.3 Digital Devices: Bits and Words
7.4 Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals
7.5 Voltage Measurements
Digital-to-Analog Converter
Analog-to-Digital Converter
Successive Approximation Converters
7.6 Data Acquisition Systems
7.7 Data Acquisition System Components
Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters and Amplification
Components for Acquiring Data
7.8 Analog Input–Output Communication
Data Acquisition Modules
7.9 Digital Input–Output Communication
Data Transmission
Universal Serial Bus
Bluetooth Communications
Other Serial Communications: RS-232C
Parallel Communications
7.10 Digital Image Acquisition and Processing
Image Acquisition
Image Processing
Summary
References
Nomenclature
Chapter 8 Problems
Chapter 8 Temperature Measurements
8.1 Introduction
Historical Background
8.2 Temperature Standards and Definition
Fixed Point Temperatures and Interpolation
Temperature Scales and Standards
8.3 Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
Bimetallic Thermometers
8.4 Electrical Resistance Thermometry
Resistance Temperature Detectors
Thermistors
8.5 Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement
Seebeck Effect
Peltier Effect
Thomson Effect
Fundamental Thermocouple Laws
Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples
Thermocouple Standards
Thermocouple Voltage Measurement
Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits
Applications for Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement: Heat Flux
Data Acquisition Considerations
8.6 Radiative Temperature Measurements
Radiation Fundamentals
Radiation Detectors
Radiometer
Pyrometry
Optical Fiber Thermometers
Narrow-Band Infrared Temperature Measurement
Fundamental Principles
Two-Color Thermometry
Full-Field IR Imaging
8.7 Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement
Insertion Errors
Conduction Errors
Radiation Errors
Radiation Shielding
Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement
Summary
References
Suggested Reading
Nomenclature
Chapter 9 Problems
Chapter 9 Pressure and Velocity Measurements
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Pressure Concepts
9.3 Pressure Reference Instruments
McLeod Gauge
Barometer
Manometer
Deadweight Testers
9.4 Pressure Transducers
Bourdon Tube
Bellows and Capsule Elements
Diaphragms
Piezoelectric Crystal Elements
9.5 Pressure Transducer Calibration
Static Calibration
Dynamic Calibration
9.6 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids
Total Pressure Measurement
Static Pressure Measurement
9.7 Modeling Pressure–Fluid Systems
9.8 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects
Liquids
Gases
Heavily Damped Systems
9.9 Acoustical Measurements
Signal Weighting
Microphones
9.10 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems
Pitot–Static Pressure Probe
Thermal Anemometry
Doppler Anemometry
Particle Image Velocimetry
Selection of Velocity Measuring Methods
Summary
References
Nomenclature
Chapter 10 Problems
Chapter 10 Flow Measurements
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Historical Background
10.3 Flow Rate Concepts
10.4 Volume Flow Rate through Velocity Determination
10.5 Pressure Differential Meters
Obstruction Meters
Orifice Meter
Venturi Meter
Flow Nozzles
Sonic Nozzles
Obstruction Meter Selection
Laminar Flow Elements
10.6 Insertion Volume Flow Meters
Electromagnetic Flow Meters
Vortex Shedding Meters
Rotameters
Turbine Meters
Transit Time and Doppler (Ultrasonic) Flow Meters
Positive Displacement Meters
10.7 Mass Flow Meters
Thermal Flow Meter
Coriolis Flow Meter
10.8 Flow Meter Calibration and Standards
10.9 Estimating Standard Flow Rate
Summary
References
Nomenclature
Chapter 11 Problems
Chapter 11 Strain Measurement
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Stress and Strain
Lateral Strains
11.3 Resistance Strain Gauges
Metallic Gauges
Strain Gauge Construction and Bonding
Semiconductor Strain Gauges
11.4 Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits
11.5 Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement
The Multiple Gauge Bridge
Bridge Constant
11.6 Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation
Temperature Compensation
Bridge Static Sensitivity
Practical Considerations
Analysis of Strain Gauge Data
Signal Conditioning
11.7 Optical Strain Measuring Techniques
Basic Characteristics of Light
Photoelastic Measurement
Moiré Methods
Fiber Bragg Strain Measurement
Summary
References
Nomenclature
Chapter 12 Problems
Chapter 12 Mechatronics: Sensors, Actuators, and Controls
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sensors
Displacement Sensors
Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration
Velocity Measurements
Angular Velocity Measurements
Force Measurement
Torque Measurements
Mechanical Power Measurements
12.3 Actuators
Linear Actuators
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators
Rotary Actuators
Flow-Control Valves
12.4 Controls
Dynamic Response
Laplace Transforms
Block Diagrams
Model for Oven Control
Proportional–Integral (PI) Control
Proportional–Integral–Derivative Control of a Second-Order System
Summary
References
Nomenclature
Appendix A Property Data and Conversion Factors
Appendix B Laplace Transform Basics
Glossary
Index
EULA