The Regional Diversification of Latin

List of maps page xii
Preface xv
List of abbreviations xviii
I Introduction 1
1 Aims, methods and findings 1
2 Some definitions: ‘dialect’ and ‘accent’ 8
3 ‘Dialect terms/words’ 12
4 ‘Standard’ varieties and ‘language standardisation’ 13
5 Cities and forms of dialect diffusion 18
6 Dialects and colonisation 21
7 Old and new dialects 27
8 ‘Shrinkage’, isolation and archaism 31
9 ‘Regions’, ‘areas’ of the Roman Empire 32
10 Recapitulation: themes applicable to Rome that have come
up so far 33
11 A recent account of the reasons for the diversity of colonial speech 34
12 Final questions 35
13 Plan and some limitations 35
II The Republic: inscriptions 37
1 Introduction 37
2 Inscriptions 39
3 The genitive in -us 40
4 The digraph oi and long u 44
5 The first-declension dative in -a 46
6 e for ei 52
7 o and ou 64
8 i for long e 67
9 i and e in hiatus 68
10 u for Latin long o: Oscan influence? 72
11 Monophthongisation of ai/ae 78
12 Mircurius and comparable forms 89
13 Loss of final -t/-d 92
14 Names of the god Mars 93
15 The name Hercules 95
16 Lexical mixing in a regional inscription 96
17 Some ‘nominative’ forms in Etruria 97
18 Latin and Faliscan 100
19 A lexical item in an inscription of Praeneste 107
20 The ‘intermediate’ vowel in the late Republic 107
21 Conclusions 108
III Explicit evidence for regional variation:
the Republic 114
1 Introduction 114
2 The Republic: introduction 118
3 Plautus, Lucilius and the Latin of Praeneste 119
4 Cicero 123
4.1 The city ‘sound’: ‘smoothness’ versus ‘harshness’ 124
4.2 Athens and Rome 129
4.3 Some further Ciceronian evidence 132
4.4 rusticus and agrestis 143
4.5 Cicero: some conclusions 145
5 Asinius Pollio and the Patavinitas of Livy 147
6 Varro 153
7 Nigidius Figulus 174
8 Other republican and Augustan testimonia 174
9 Some conclusions 182
9.1 The existence of regional variety 182
9.2 Places named 184
9.3 General regional features identified by the sources 185
9.4 Determinants of variation 186
9.5 What dialects were there? 187
IV Explicit evidence: the Empire 188
1 Italy 188
1.2 Romanness and related ideas 188
1.2.1 Martial 189
1.2.2 Panegyrici Latini 191
1.2.3 Augustine 192
1.2.4 Quintilian and Statius 194
1.2.5 A passage of the Younger Pliny 196
1.2.6 Apuleius 197
1.2.7 Sidonius Apollinaris 198
1.2.8 Macrobius 199
1.2.9 Ausonius 200
1.2.10 Consentius 200
1.2.11 Some conclusions 200
1.2.12 The other side of the coin 202
1.3 Specific usages from parts of Italy 206
1.3.1 Columella, Pliny and Julius Romanus on Campania and
some other parts of Italy 206
1.3.2 Columella again: Italy 213
1.3.3 Pliny 216
1.3.4 Contrastive observations 218
1.3.5 Further evidence to do with Italy 222
1.3.6 Names of winds 224
1.3.7 Conclusions 230
2 Spain 231
2.1 Spanish accent 231
2.2 Spanish testimonia: Columella 233
2.3 Spanish testimonia: Pliny 235
2.4 Spanish testimonia: Isidore 238
3 Gaul 240
3.1 Aquitania: a new twist to an old topos 240
3.2 Some phonetic evidence 244
3.3 Some lexical evidence 250
3.4 Miscellaneous 258
3.5 Some conclusions 258
4 Africa 259
4.1 Some vague testimonia 260
4.2 Vowel system 260
4.3 ‘Labdacism’ 265
4.4 A passage of Jerome 268
4.5 Lexical testimonia 269
4.6 Conclusion 269
5 General conclusions 270
5.1 The rhetoric of metalinguistic comments 270
5.2 Patterns of variation 271
5.3 Causes of regional variation 272
5.4 Strong regionalisms 273
5.5 Ancient testimonia and the Romance languages 273
5.6 False regionalisms 273
5.7 Romanness 275
V Regionalisms in provincial texts: Gaul 276
1 Introduction: some points of methodology 276
2 Early texts from Gaul: La Graufesenque 281
3 Later imperial Gallic texts of known provenance 289
3.1 Marcellus of Bordeaux (?) 289
3.2 Caesarius of Arles 293
3.3 Polemius Silvius 295
3.4 Endlicher’s glossary 299
3.5 The catalogue of fish in Ausonius’ Mosella 304
3.6 A Gallic inscription with moritex 311
4 Germanic law codes 313
4.1 Pactus legis Salicae 313
4.2 Lex Burgundionum 320
4.3 Leges Alamannorum 323
4.4 Lex Ribuaria 327
4.5 Some conclusions 327
5 Some texts of uncertain provenance 329
5.1 Anthimus 329
5.2 Eucheria 335
5.3 A school exercise 337
5.4 Actus Petri cum Simone 338
5.5 Peregrinatio Aetheriae 342
6 Miscellaneous 353
7 General conclusions 356
7.1 Two questions 356
7.2 Linguistic criteria for locating a text or the origin of its author 357
7.3 Strong and weak dialect terms 360
7.4 Some stages in the regional diversification of Gallic Latin 365
7.5 How do regionalisms get into written texts? 366
7.6 Forms of substrate influence 368
7.7 Causes of regional variation 368
VI Spain 370
1 Introduction 370
2 The supposed conservatism of Spanish Latin 372
3 Some possible Hispanisms in classical Latin 402
4 The alleged Oscan influence on Spanish (and Italian dialects) 406
5 Some imperial evidence for Spanish regionalisms 421
6 Some conclusions 428
VII Italy 432
1 Introduction 432
2 Varro 433
3 Virgil 435
4 Petronius 437
5 Pompeii 441
6 ‘Campanian’ Latin and the Johns Hopkins defixiones 443
7 Columella 451
8 The Regvla of Benedict 452
9 Miscellaneous spellings 453
10 A matter of syntax 456
11 Linguistic evidence for the provenance of some late texts 457
11.1 The Ravenna papyri 457
11.2 Compositiones Lucenses 465
11.3 The Latin translations of Oribasius 472
11.3.1 Introduction 473
11.3.2 Northern Italian and Italian elements in the
translation of Oribasius 475
11.3.3 Conclusions 487
11.3.4 Miscellaneous 489
11.3.5 Appendix: some signs of linguistic unity in texts
attributed to the ‘Ravenna school’ 497
11.4 The commentary on Galen 501
11.5 Physica Plinii Bambergensis 503
11.6 Some conclusions: regional Latin and medical texts 507
11.7 Edictus Rothari 511
11.8 Itinerarium Antonini Placentini 513
12 Some final remarks 513
VIII Africa 516
1 Africitas 516
1.1 African Latin as ‘archaic’ 518
1.2 Two usages 519
2 Some sources of information about African Latin 520
3 A revealing lexical example: buda 522
4 Some medical texts identifiable as African on linguistic
evidence 528
4.1 Mustio 529
4.2 Cassius Felix 530
4.3 Dioscorides 533
4.4 Liber tertius 534
4.5 Some further features of the above texts 534
4.6 Some conclusions 540
4.7 Some further, more marginal, usages 542
5 Possible Africanisms in Nonius Marcellus 546
6 Tablettes Albertini 549
7 The Bu Njem ostraca 562
8 Recapitulation 565
9 Miscellaneous lexical items, and Sardinia again 566
10 Some remarks on Punic and Libyan 569
11 Conclusions 573
IX Britain 577
1 The coming of Latin to Britain 577
2 Newly discovered Latin from Britain 579
3 The origin of those who have left writing in Britain 580
4 Evidence of Latin loan-words in British Celtic 583
5 Jackson’s twelve points 587
6 ‘Social gradience’ 593
7 Features of the Latin of Britain shared with that of Gaul 596
8 A special case: excussorium ‘threshing-floor’ and excutio ‘thresh’ 604
9 Another special case: corticivs 606
10 Some correspondences between Latin attested in Britain and
loan-words in Celtic 609
11 Some conclusions 612
12 Vindolanda and British medieval Latin 614
13 The ‘Celtic’ inscriptions of Britain 616
14 Hibernisms in Irish Latin 620
15 Conclusions 622
X Inscriptions 624
1 Introduction 624
2 Specific phenomena 626
2.1 The confusion of B and V 626
2.2 B and V and the Romance evidence 627
2.3 The confusion of e and i (representing original short i) 628
3 Misspellings in inscriptions as evidence for dialectalisation? Some
methodological considerations 629
4 A comparative method of assessing the regional significance of
spelling errors 635
5 A comparison region by region 636
6 Alleged causes of the merger of /b/ and /w/ 663
7 Vocalic misspellings again 666
7.1 The ‘Roman accent’ and its alleged effects 666
7.2 The Danubian provinces 668
7.3 Vocalic spellings around the Adriatic coast 669
8 Inscriptions and ‘dialect geography’: some miscellaneous studies 670
9 Some conclusions 676
10 Lexicon 677
11 ‘Inscriptional’ or ‘pseudo’-regionalisms 678
12 Final remarks 682
XI Conclusion 684
1 ‘Unitary’ and ‘differential’ theories 684
2 Metalinguistic comments: some patterns 685
3 Some aspects of the history of regional Latin 690
3.1 Diversity and language contact in republican Italy 690
3.2 The ideal of Romanness; Romanisation 696
3.3 Other influential urban centres 697
3.4 Koineisation 698
3.5 Regional continuities 698
3.6 Developments in micro-communities 701
3.7 Wider areas: those crossing geographical or political boundaries 705
3.8 Provinces 710
4 Causes of regional variety 711
4.1 Archaisms 712
4.2 Innovation 714
4.3 A different way of looking at archaism and innovation: lexical
change at the centre or margins of an empire 715
4.4 Language contact 716
4.5 Diffusion 717
4.6 Differential rates of linguistic change in different places 719
4.7 Isolation 720
4.8 Local specificities 720
5 Further themes and problems 721
5.1 Flora and fauna 721
5.2 ‘Dialects’, Latin and Romance 723
5.3 The lexicon, phonology and the problem of syntax 726
5.4 The localising of literary and other texts 731
5.5 Regional language and Latin literature 731
Maps 733
Bibliography 747
Index verborum 786
Subject index 797
Index locorum 808