The Environment Through the Lens of International Courts and Tribunals

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
1 Emergence of International Environmental Law: A Brief History from the Stockholm Conference to Agenda 2030
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Evolution of International Environmental Law
1.2.1 Pre-sustainable Development Era
1.2.2 Post-sustainable Development Era
1.2.3 Globalization, Anthropocene and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
1.3 Selected Principles of International Environmental Law
1.3.1 Obligation not to Cause Environmental Harm and the Principle of Prevention
1.3.2 Common but Differentiated Responsibility Principle
1.3.3 Inter- and Intra-generational Equity Principle
1.3.4 Precautionary Principle
1.3.5 Environmental Impact Assessment and Public Participation
1.4 Unique Features of IEL
1.4.1 Use of Soft Law Instruments
1.4.2 Framework/Protocol Approach
1.4.3 Linkages
1.4.4 North–South Divide
1.5 Regulation of the Global Commons
1.6 Regulation of Activities of Non-state Actors
1.7 Conclusion: Achievements, Challenges and Future Trajectory
References
Part I A Fragmented Jurisdictional Landscape
2 The International Court of Justice and the Protection of the Environment
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Principles Governing ICJ Action
2.2.1 The ICJ’s Contentious Function
2.2.2 The ICJ’s Advisory Function
2.3 An Overview of the Leading Cases
2.3.1 Environmental Cases Settled Out of Court
2.3.2 Environmental Cases Decided by the Court
2.4 Scientific Evidence in Environmental Cases before the International Court of Justice
2.4.1 Assembling the Necessary Evidence to Decide Environmental Cases
2.4.2 Establishment of the Facts in Environmental Cases
2.5 The Role of the Court in Preventing Irreparable Damage to the Environment
2.6 The ICJ’s Contribution to the Clarification of the Rules of International Law Relating to the Protection of the Environment
2.6.1 Recognition of an Obligation in Relation to Environmental Protection
2.6.2 The Relevance of Environmental Protection in Various Fields of International Law
2.6.3 Clarification of the Rules of International Environmental Law Relating to Transboundary Harm
2.6.4 Clarification of the Principles Applicable to Compensation for Environmental Damage
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Relevant Procedural Rules of ITLOS
3.2.1 Jurisdiction in Contentious Proceedings
3.2.2 Provisional Measures and Advisory Proceedings
3.2.3 Applicable Law
3.3 ITLOS Jurisprudence Concerning Marine Environmental Protection
3.3.1 The Precautionary Principle
3.3.2 Duty to Cooperate
3.3.3 Duty to Conduct EIA
3.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of ITLOS in Dealing with Environmental Protection
3.4.1 Strengths
3.4.2 Weaknesses
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 The Protection of the Environment Through Inter-State Arbitration
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Jurisdictional Questions and Incidental Proceedings
4.3 Codification and Application of Procedural Instruments
4.4 Substantive Contributions to Environmental Protection
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 The World Trade Organization Dispute Settlement Mechanism
5.1 Introduction
5.2 An Overview of the WTO and Its Dispute Settlement System
5.2.1 Operation of the Dispute Settlement System
5.3 Significant Environmental Disputes Within the WTO Dispute Settlement System
5.3.1 Environmental Provisions in the WTO Covered Agreements
5.4 Assessment of the Strengths and Weaknesses of the WTO Dispute Settlement System as a Forum for Resolving Disputes Involving Environmental Matters
5.5 Conclusions
References
6 Crimes Against the Environment: What Role for the International Criminal Court?
6.1 The Need for International Criminal Justice for the Protection of the Environment
6.2 Historical Background
6.3 The Core Crimes Under the Rome Statute
6.4 Jurisdiction of the ICC—A Brief Overview
6.5 Applicability of the Rome Statute to Environmental Crimes
6.6 Intentional Destruction of the Environment as Genocide?
6.7 Intentional Destruction of the Environment as a Crime Against Humanity?
6.8 Intentional Destruction of the Environment as a War Crime?
6.8.1 Article 8(2)(b)(iv)
6.8.2 Other War Crimes
6.9 Conclusion
References
7 The European Court of Human Rights and the Environment
7.1 Introduction: The Environment Before the European Court of Human Rights
7.2 The ECHR: An Anthropocentric Forum of Environmental Protection?
7.2.1 Introduction
7.2.2 Ratione Personae Scope of Application of the ECHR
7.2.3 Ratione Materiae Scope of Application of the ECHR
7.2.4 Ratione Loci Scope of Application or State Jurisdiction
7.2.5 Ratione Temporis Scope of Application of the ECHR
7.3 Standing
7.3.1 Individuals or their Associations
7.3.2 Victim
7.4 Substantive Protection in Environmental Proceedings: The Case of Positive Environmental Obligations
7.4.1 Introduction
7.4.2 Bandwidth of Convention Rights Providing for Positive Obligations to Protect the Environment According to the ECtHR’s Jurisprudence
7.4.3 Specific Kinds of Positive Obligations Owed to the Protection of the Environment
7.4.4 Personal Scope of Application of Positive Environmental Rights and Obligations/Standard of Proof
7.5 Justification for Interferences or the Margin of Appreciation in Cases Concerning Positive Environmental Obligations
7.6 Remedies
7.7 Final Conclusions
References
8 European Union Court System and the Protection of the Environment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Background
8.2.1 The General Scheme of the Legal Remedies Before the Court of Justice
8.2.2 The Ratification of the Aarhus Convention by the EU
8.3 Limited Direct Actions for Individuals in Environmental Matters
8.3.1 Infringement Proceedings in Environmental Matters: Effective But Not Available to Individuals
8.3.2 Obstacles to Direct Actions Against EU Institutions in Environmental Disputes
8.4 The Importance of Preliminary Reference in Environmental Litigation
8.4.1 The Review by Way of Exception of the Legality of EU Institutions’ Acts
8.4.2 Guarantees Concerning Access to National Courts
8.5 The Problem of the Compliance with the Aarhus Convention
8.6 Conclusions
References
9 Inter-American Court of Human Rights
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Inter-American System: Contentious Jurisdiction
9.2.1 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
9.2.2 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights
9.3 The Inter-American System Advisory Jurisdiction: The Advisory Opinion of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights on the Environment and Human Rights
9.3.1 The Meaning of Jurisdiction under the American Convention and Potential Diagonal Climate Change Claims
9.3.2 The Right to Life as a Right to a Healthy Environment
9.3.3 The Positive Obligations Under the Right to Life and the Notion of the Right to Life in Dignity
9.3.4 Procedural Obligations in Environment-related Cases: Due Diligence, the Duty to Prevent Transboundary Harm and Other Procedural Obligations
9.4 Contentious Cases After the Advisory Opinion on Environment and Human Rights: The First Contentious Case on the Right to a Healthy Environment, the Lhaka Honhat Case
9.5 Conclusion
References
10 The Protection of the Environment Before African Regional Courts and Tribunals
10.1 Introduction
10.2 ‘Wisdom of Elders’: The Birth of International Environmental Law in the African Continent
10.3 ‘We Are Sent Here by History’: Regionalizing International Environmental Law in Africa
10.3.1 Mapping African Regional Courts and Tribunals in the Context of RECs
10.3.2 A Panorama of Environmental Provisions in the Constitutive Instruments of RECs
10.4 ‘Lest We Forget What We Came Here to Do’: Environmental Activism in the Jurisprudence of African Regional Courts and Tribunals
10.4.1 Integrating Human Rights and the Environment: The Practice of the African Commission and the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights
10.4.2 Reinforcing Due Diligence to Protect the Environment: The Practice of the ECOWAS Court of Justice
10.4.3 Rethinking Remedies in Environmental Disputes: The Practice of the EAC Court of Justice
10.5 Conclusion
References
11 Environmental Protection in International Investment Arbitration: From Defences to Counterclaims
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Environmental Protection as Host State Defence
11.3 Environmental Protection as Host State Counterclaim
11.4 Environmental Protection in Investor Claims
11.5 Conclusion: Multidimensional Environmental Protection in Investor-State Arbitration
References
12 Commercial Arbitration
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Is Commercial Arbitration a Suitable Forum to Resolve Environmental Disputes?
12.2.1 Neutrality
12.2.2 Ease of Enforceability
12.2.3 Procedural Flexibility
12.3 Is There a Need for Greater Accessibility When Commercial Arbitration Is Used to Resolve Environmental Disputes?
12.3.1 The Tension Between Transparency and Confidentiality
12.3.2 The Tension Between Transparency and Privacy
12.3.3 The Tension Between the Lack of a Doctrine of Precedent and the Protection of the Environment
12.4 Conclusion
References
Part II Key Issues in International Environmental Proceedings
13 Jurisdiction and Applicable Law (Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae)
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Distinguishing Jurisdiction from Applicable Law
13.3 Jurisdiction
13.3.1 Compromissory Clauses Found in Environmental Treaties
13.3.2 Aspects of the Jurisdiction of Certain Courts and Tribunals
13.3.3 Concluding Remarks on Jurisdiction
13.4 Applicable Law
13.4.1 Applicable Law in the Context of Certain Courts and Tribunals
13.4.2 Concluding Remarks on Applicable Law
13.5 Forum Shopping
13.6 Conclusion
References
14 Access to and Participation in Proceedings Before International Courts and Tribunals
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Legal Framework Governing Access to and Participation in the Proceedings
14.2.1 Inter-State Dispute Settlement Mechanisms
14.2.2 Other Dispute Settlement Mechanisms
14.3 The Reasons for the Different Approaches to Access and Participation in the Proceedings
14.4 Concluding Remarks
References
15 Provisional Measures
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Purposes and Nature of Provisional Measures
15.3 Authority to Order Provisional Measures
15.3.1 Express Authority to Order Provisional Measures for Protection of the Environment
15.3.2 Authority to Order Provisional Measures Proprio Motu
15.3.3 Express Authority to Order Provisional Measures Pending Constitution or Convening of Tribunal
15.4 Criteria and Considerations
15.4.1 Jurisdiction
15.4.2 Possibility of Success on the Merits
15.4.3 Link Requirement
15.4.4 Qualifying Risk
15.4.5 Urgency
15.4.6 Party Behaviour
15.4.7 Proportionality
15.5 Types of Measures Ordered
15.5.1 Orders Assigning a Unilateral Obligation
15.5.2 Orders Demanding Collaboration Between the Parties
15.5.3 Orders to Involve Third Parties
15.5.4 Complementary Measures
15.5.5 Modification or Revocation of Provisional Measures Previously Ordered
15.6 Legal and Practical Effect of Provisional Measures
15.7 Concluding Remarks
References
16 Proving Environmental Harm Before International Courts and Tribunals
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Burden of Proof
16.2.1 Existence of Environmental Harm
16.2.2 Causation
16.2.3 Valuation
16.3 Standard of Proof
16.4 Methods of Proof
16.4.1 Documentary Evidence
16.4.2 Expert Evidence
16.4.3 Testimonial Evidence
16.5 Conclusion
References
17 State Responsibility and Liability
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Distinguishing State Responsibility and Liability for Environmental Damage
17.2.1 State Responsibility
17.2.2 State Liability
17.3 State Responsibility and International Environmental Law
17.3.1 Community Interests in International Environmental Law
17.3.2 Due Diligence and the Principle of Prevention
17.4 State Responsibility and Reparations for Environmental Harm
17.5 Conclusions on State Responsibility and Environmental Harm
References
18 The Principles of International Environmental Law Through the Lens of International Courts and Tribunals
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Principle of Sovereignty and Responsibility
18.3 Principle of Good Neighborliness and International Cooperation
18.4 Principle of Preventive Action
18.5 Precautionary Principle
18.6 Principle of Sustainable Development
18.7 The Duty to Compensate for Harm (Polluter Pays Principle)
18.8 Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility
References
Part III Future Opportunities and Developments
19 Reflections on International Environmental Adjudication: International Adjudication Versus Compliance Mechanisms in Multilateral Environmental Agreements
19.1 Introduction: The Intrinsic Complexity of ‘Environmental Disputes’
19.2 The Shift towards Managerialism: Compliance Mechanisms in MEA
19.2.1 The Emergence of Endogenous Compliance Mechanisms in MEA
19.2.2 Institutional and Procedural Features of Compliance Mechanisms in MEA
19.2.3 Compliance Mechanisms as Compliance Promoters and Dispute Avoiders: An Appraisal
19.3 Developments in the International Adjudication of Claims Based on Erga Omnes Partes Obligations
19.3.1 Standing for Claims Based on Multilateral Treaties
19.3.2 Third-Party Intervention on the Basis of Article 63 ICJ Statute
19.4 Concluding Reflections
References
20 Climate Change Litigation: National Courts as Agents of International Law Development
20.1 Introduction
20.2 National Courts and International Law
20.2.1 How National Courts Engage with International Law
20.2.2 How National Courts Impact on International Law
20.3 International Law and Climate Change Litigation
20.3.1 Climate Change Litigation
20.3.2 Role of National Courts in Interpreting, and Enforcing, the International Climate Change Treaty Regime
20.4 National Courts and Climate Change Litigation: Engagement and Development
20.4.1 The Urgenda Decisions (2015–2019) (The Netherlands)
20.4.2 The Thomson Decision (2017) (New Zealand)
20.4.3 Reflections on the Urgenda and Thomson Decisions
20.5 Conclusion
References
21 A Growing Role for the UN Security Council?
21.1 Introduction
21.2 The Legal Framework
21.2.1 The Mandate and Authority of the Security Council
21.2.2 The Security Council as a Dispute Resolution Body
21.3 The Security Council on Environmental Issues
21.3.1 Climate Change and the Security Council: A Cautious Approach
21.3.2 Preventive Diplomacy and Trans-boundary Waters
21.3.3 Protection of the Environment in Armed Conflict
21.3.4 Natural Resources and the Environment
21.4 Should the Security Council Address Environmental Issues?
21.4.1 The Climate-Security Connection
21.4.2 The Peace, Security and Development Nexus
21.4.3 Encroachment on Other UN Organs and Bodies?
21.5 Possible Future Role for the Security Council in the Protection of the Environment and Settling Environmental Disputes
21.5.1 The Environment and Conflict Prevention
21.5.2 Addressing Environmental Disasters or Events with Environmental Aspects that Endanger International Peace and Security
21.5.3 Chapter VII Enforcement Measures to Settle Environmental Disputes
21.6 Conclusion
References
22 Application of World Law by International Courts and Tribunals to Protect the Environment
22.1 Introduction
22.2 World Law
22.2.1 World Law in the United Kingdom
22.2.2 World Law in the United States of America
22.2.3 Wereldrecht in the Netherlands
22.3 Application of World Law by International Courts and Tribunals
22.3.1 Sekai-hō in Japan
22.3.2 World Judge as Guardian of World Law
22.4 World Law, International Courts, and Environmental Protection
22.5 Some Reflections on the Potential of World Law Used by International Courts and Tribunals to Protect the Environment
References
23 General Conclusions
References
Index