The Chemistry Knowledge for Firefighters

Foreword
Foreword
Foreword to the English edition
Thank You
Contents
Part I: Introduction
1: The Natural Sciences
1.1 Differentiation of the Natural Sciences
1.2 Differentiation of Physical and Chemical Processes
1.3 What Are These ``Substances´´?
1.4 Models
2: Substances and Mixtures
2.1 Substance Separation
2.1.1 Separation of Heterogeneous Systems
2.1.2 Separation of Homogeneous Systems
2.2 Element and Connection
Example 1
Example 2
2.3 Substance Properties of Interest to the Fire Brigade
Part II: Forms of States of Matter
3: Aggregate States
3.1 Heat Transport
3.1.1 What Is ``Heat´´?
3.1.2 What Is ``Temperature´´?
3.1.2.1 Temperature Scales
3.1.3 Heat Conduction
Calculation of Linear Expansion
Rule of Thumb
3.1.3.1 Thermal Conductivity
3.1.4 Heat Convection (Convection)
3.1.4.1 Volume Expansion
Calculation of the Volume Expansion
Rule of thumb
3.1.4.2 Apparent Volume Expansion
3.1.4.3 Volume Expansion in Completely Filled Containers
3.1.5 Thermal Radiation
3.1.6 Heat Transport and Fire Occurrence
3.2 Change of the State of Aggregation
3.2.1 Transitions Solid Liquid
3.2.1.1 Melting Point
3.2.1.2 Solidification Point
3.2.2 Transitions Liquid Gaseous
3.2.2.1 Boiling Point
3.2.2.2 Evaporation
3.2.3 Transitions Solid Gaseous
3.2.4 Vapour Pressure Condition
3.2.4.1 Water Steam Volatility
3.3 Important Safety-Related Values
3.3.1 Evaporation Number
3.3.2 Vapour Pressure
3.3.3 Flash Point, Inflammation Point, Ignition Temperature
3.3.3.1 Water-Miscible Flammable Liquids
3.3.4 Explosion Range
3.3.4.1 About the Measurement Technology
3.3.4.2 Calculated Estimation LEL/UEL
Example
3.3.5 Vapour Density Ratio
3.3.6 Basic Tactical Rules
3.4 Specific Heat Capacity and Latent Heats
3.4.1 Specific Heat Capacity
3.4.2 Heat of Fusion
3.4.3 Heat of Evaporation
3.4.4 Heat of Sublimation
3.4.5 Heat Quantity Calculations
3.4.5.1 Heat Mixtures without Changes of Aggregate State
Calculation Example 1
Calculation Example 2
3.4.5.2 Heat Mixtures with Changes of Aggregate State
3.4.6 Changes of Aggregate State and Extinguishing Agent Use
3.4.6.1 Water
3.4.6.2 Foam
3.4.6.3 Carbon Dioxide
3.4.6.4 Extinguishing Powder
3.4.7 Aggregate States in NBC Operations
4: Gases
4.1 Ideal Gas
4.2 Pressure and Temperature
4.3 Boyle-Mariotte Law
4.4 Law of Amontons
4.5 Law of Gay-Lussac
4.6 General Gas Equation
4.6.1 Absolute Zero
4.7 Avogadro Theorem
4.8 Universal Gas Equation
Calculation Example ``Universal Gas Equation´´
4.9 Standard Conditions
4.10 Partial Pressures
4.11 Diffusion
4.11.1 Diffusion Coefficient (Diffusion Constant)
4.11.2 Brownian Molecular Motion
4.12 Real Gases
4.12.1 Breathing Air - A Real Gas
4.12.2 Critical Pressure and Critical Temperature
4.12.2.1 BLEVE
4.12.3 Solubility of Gases
4.12.3.1 Solubility of Gases During Firefighting Operations
Part III: Atomic Models and Periodic Table
5: Atoms and Atomic Shell
5.1 Development of the Atomic Theory
5.1.1 Dalton´s Atomic Model - Sphere Model
5.1.2 Thomson´s Atomic Model - Raisin Cake Model
5.2 Structure of the Atomic Shell
5.2.1 Rutherford Atomic Model
5.2.2 Bohr´s Atomic Model
5.2.3 Bohr-Sommerfeld Atomic Model
5.2.4 Orbital Model
5.2.5 The Electron
5.3 Structure of the Atomic Nucleus
5.3.1 Rutherford´s Scattering Test
5.3.2 The Proton
5.3.3 The Neutron
5.4 Particles in the Atom
5.5 Atomic Mass Units
5.5.1 Absolute Atomic Mass (mA) and Absolute Molecular Mass (mM)
5.5.2 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar), Relative Molecular Mass (Mr), and ``u´´
Example
5.5.3 Amount of Substance n
5.5.4 The Molar Volume (Vm)
5.5.5 Loschmidt Number
6: The Periodic Table
6.1 Early Trials
6.2 Periodic Table According to Mendeleev & Meyer
6.3 Structure of the Periodic Table
6.3.1 Display Mode
6.3.2 Casting Order
6.4 Representation of the Electron Configuration
6.4.1 Hund´s Rule
6.4.2 Orbital Diagram
6.4.3 Term Notation
6.5 Periodic Properties
6.5.1 Atomic Radius
6.5.2 Ionization Energy
6.5.3 Electron Affinity
6.5.4 Electronegativity
Summary: Periodic Properties of the Elements
6.6 Main Groups of the Periodic Table
6.6.1 First Main Group - Alkali Metals
6.6.2 Second Main Group -Alkaline Earth Metals
6.6.3 Third Main Group - Boron Group
6.6.4 Fourth Main Group - Carbon Group
6.6.5 Fifth Main Group - Nitrogen Group
6.6.6 Sixth Main Group - Chalcogens
6.6.7 Seventh Main Group - Halogens
6.6.8 Eighth Main Group -Noble Gases
6.7 Subgroup Elements/d-Elements
6.8 Rare Earths/f-Elements
6.9 Oblique Relationship
6.10 Metals in the PTE
Part IV: Molecules, Ions, Bonds
7: Introduction
7.1 Molecule Presentation
7.2 Notation
7.2.1 Element Symbols
7.2.2 Comparison of Molecular Notations
7.3 The Valence Stroke Formula
7.3.1 Noble Gas Rule
Example
7.3.1.1 Exceptions to the Noble Gas Rule
7.3.1.2 Bonds of Heavy Elements (From Third Period)
7.3.1.3 Formal Charge
7.3.1.4 Mesomerism
Example
7.3.2 Electronegativity (EN)
7.3.3 Oxidation Number
7.4 Other Formula Notations
7.4.1 Ratio Formula
7.4.2 Sum Formula
7.4.3 Constitutional Formula
7.4.4 Structural Formulas
7.4.5 Skeleton Formulas
8: Bonds
8.1 Strong Bonds
8.1.1 Metal Binding
8.1.2 Ion Binding
8.1.3 Electron Pair Bond
8.1.4 Polarized Electron Pair Bond
8.1.5 Transitions Between the Bond Types
8.2 Weak Bondings
8.2.1 Dipole-Dipole Interaction
8.2.1.1 Effects of the Dipole-Dipole Interaction
8.2.2 Hydrogen Bond
8.2.3 Van der Waals Forces
8.2.3.1 Effects of the Van der Waals forces
8.3 Other Types of Bonds in Solids
8.3.1 Molecular Lattice
8.3.2 Atomic Lattice
8.3.2.1 Modification
Part V: Solutions and Chemical Reactions
9: Chemical Reactions: Fundamentals
9.1 Basic Laws
9.1.1 Law of Conservation of Mass
9.1.2 Law of Equivalent Proportions
9.1.3 Law of Constant Proportions
9.1.4 Law of Multiple Proportions
9.1.5 Humboldt´s Gas Law
9.2 Reactions
9.2.1 Basic Reactions
9.2.2 Reaction Equations
Examples
9.2.3 Rules for Setting Up Reaction Equations
Example 1
Example 2
9.2.4 Stoichiometry
9.2.5 Naming Connections
10: Solutions
10.1 Basic Information on the Dissolving Behaviour
10.1.1 Dissolving Process: Polar Substances in Polar Solvents
10.1.2 Dissolving Process: Non-polar Substances in Non-polar Solvents
10.1.3 Energy Consumption During the Dissolving Process
10.1.4 Unsaturated, Saturated and Supersaturated Solutions
10.1.5 Temperature Dependence of the Solubility
10.1.6 Crystal Water
10.1.7 Application-Related Dissolving Behaviour of Solids
Example
10.1.8 Water Miscibility of Liquids
10.1.8.1 Mixture Gap for Liquids
10.1.8.2 Simple Detection Options
10.1.9 Rules for the Solubility of Salts in Water
10.2 Composition of Mixed Phases
10.2.1 Mass Fraction (w, w %)
10.2.1.1 Conversion Solubility (L*) Mass Fraction (w)
10.2.2 Volume Fraction (φ,φ %, vol.-%)
10.2.3 Mass Concentration (β)
10.2.4 Volume Concentration (σ, σ %)
10.2.5 Mass Concentration (c)
10.2.6 Mass Ratio (r)
10.2.7 Molality (b)
10.2.8 Small Concentrations (, ppm, ppb, ppt)
10.2.8.1 Conversion Mass Concentration Volume Concentration
Example
10.2.9 ppm Values in Firefighting Operations
10.3 Reactions in Solution
10.3.1 Exchange Reactions, General
10.3.2 Precipitation Formation
10.3.3 Formation of Gases
10.3.4 Formation of Weak Electrolytes
10.4 Chemical Reactions During the Dissolving Process
10.4.1 Reactions with Acids
10.4.2 ``Solutions´´ of Gases
10.4.3 Hydrolysis
Example
11: Double Salts, Complexes and Dispersions
11.1 Double Salts
11.2 Complex Salts
11.2.1 Important Complexes/Complexing Agents
11.2.2 Complexions
11.2.3 Structure of Complexes
11.2.4 Denticity of the Ligands
11.2.5 Stability of Complexes
11.2.6 Colourfulness of Complexes
11.2.7 Nomenclature of Complex Compounds
11.2.7.1 Ligands
11.2.7.2 Cationic Complexes
11.2.7.3 Anionic Complexes
11.2.8 Water Hardness and Extinguishing Water Supply
11.3 Disperse Systems
11.3.1 Finely Dispersed Systems
11.3.2 Colloid Disperse Systems
11.3.3 Tyndall Effect
Part VI: Acids and Alkalis
12: Acid-Base Theories
12.1 Definition According to Arrhenius
12.1.1 Acids
Examples
12.1.2 Bases
Example
12.1.3 Neutralization
Example
12.1.4 Hydrolysis
12.1.5 Salts
12.1.6 Limitations of the Model and Outlook
12.2 Definition According to Brønsted and Lowry
12.2.1 Acids and Bases
Example
12.2.2 Salts
12.2.3 Amphoteric Substances
12.2.4 Improvements Against Arrhenius
12.2.5 Limitations of the Model and Outlook
12.3 Definition According to Lewis
12.3.1 Lewis Acids
12.3.2 Lewis Bases
12.3.3 Acid-Base Reaction According to Lewis
12.3.4 Limits of the Concept According to Lewis
12.4 HSAB Concept
12.4.1 Overview HSAB Concept
Example
12.4.2 Limitations of the HSAB Concept
13: Acids and Alkalis
13.1 Properties of Acids and Alkalis
13.1.1 Shift of the pH Value
13.1.2 Corrosivity
13.1.3 Corrosion Effect
13.1.4 Change in Electrical Conductivity
13.1.5 Suitable Binders
13.1.6 Possible Reaction Hazards
13.2 Important Acids
13.2.1 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl(aq))
13.2.2 Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
13.2.3 Nitric Acid (HNO3)
13.2.4 Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4)
13.2.5 Other Inorganic Acids
13.2.5.1 Hydrofluoric Acid (HF(aq))
13.2.5.2 Hydroiodic Acid (HI(aq))
13.2.6 Organic Acids
13.2.6.1 Formic Acid (H-COOH)
13.2.6.2 Acetic Acid (H3C-COOH)
13.2.6.3 Peroxoacetic Acid (H3C-COOOH)
13.3 Important Alkalis
13.3.1 Sodium Hydroxide Solution (NaOH(aq))
13.3.2 Caustic Potash Solution (KOH(aq))
13.3.3 Ammonia/Ammonia Solution (NH3/NH3(aq))
14: pH Value
14.1 Explanation of the Value ``pH value´´
Example
14.1.1 pH Value Calculation with the Calculator
14.2 The Neutral Point
14.2.1 Temperature Dependence of KW
14.3 pH Value and pOH Value
14.3.1 Relationship Between pH and pOH Value
14.3.2 Calculation of the pOH and pH Values of an Alkaline Solution
14.4 pH Value of Salt Solutions
14.4.1 Salt of a Strong Acid and a Strong Base
14.4.2 Salt of a Weak Acid and a Strong Base
14.4.3 Salt of a Strong Acid and a Weak Base
14.4.4 Salt of a Weak Acid and a Weak Base
14.5 Acid and Alkali Strength
14.5.1 Degree of Dissociation α
14.5.2 Degree of Protolysis β
14.5.3 Acid Constant: KA and pKA
14.5.4 Base Constant: KB and pKB
14.5.5 Strong Acids and Strong Bases
Examples
14.5.6 Weak Acids and Weak Bases
14.5.7 Acid and Base Strength
14.6 Determination of the pH Value
14.6.1 pH Indicators
14.6.2 Functioning of a pH Indicator
14.6.3 Detect: Track, Measure, Analyze
14.6.4 pH Value Measurement with pH Paper
14.6.5 pH Value Measurement with pH Meter
15: Neutralisation
15.1 Basics of Acid-Base Neutralization
15.1.1 Neutralization Strong Acid Strong Base
15.1.2 Neutralisation Weak Acid Weak Base
15.1.3 Neutralisation Strong Acid (Base) Weak Base (Acid)
15.2 Neutralisation Heat
15.3 Buffer Solutions
15.3.1 Functionality of Buffer Solutions
15.3.2 Calculation of the pH Value of a Buffer
Example Calculation
15.3.3 Important Buffer Systems
15.4 Neutralization and Emergency Operations
15.4.1 Dilution up to pH 7
15.4.2 Neutralisation with Diluted Acids/Alkalis
15.4.3 Neutralisation with Solid Acids/Alkalis
15.4.4 Result of the Observations
Part VII: Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry
16: Oxidation/Reduction Concept
16.1 The Modern Redox Concept
16.1.1 Clarification
16.2 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
16.2.1 Comparison Redox Acid-base
16.3 Redox Reactions
16.3.1 Types of Redox Reactions
16.3.1.1 Redox Reactions Under Electron Exchange
16.3.1.2 Redox Reactions Under Partial Electron Transfer
16.3.1.3 Protolysis-coupled Redox Reactions
16.3.2 Examples of Redox Reactions
16.3.3 Disproportionation
16.3.4 Comproportioning
16.4 Setting up Redox Equations
16.4.1 Determination of the Oxidation Numbers
16.4.2 Determination and Compensation of Transferred Electrons
Example
16.4.3 Charge Balance, Water Balance
16.4.4 ``Strikeout Trick´´
17: Redox Pairs
17.1 Half Cells
17.1.1 Diaphragm
17.1.2 Salt Bridge
17.2 Normal Potentials of Redox Couples
17.2.1 Standard Hydrogen Electrode
17.2.2 Normal Conditions
17.2.3 Signing
17.3 Electrochemical Series
17.4 Normal Potential and Reaction Course
18: Calculation of the Electromotive Force
18.1 Calculation at Normal Conditions
Example
18.2 Nernst´s Equation
18.2.1 EMF and Concentration Variations
18.2.2 Concentration Chains
19: Galvanic Cells
19.1 Batteries
19.1.1 Historical Batteries
19.1.1.1 Voltaic Column
19.1.1.2 Daniell Element
19.1.1.3 Leclanche Element
19.1.2 Zinc-carbon Battery
19.1.3 Alkaline Manganese Cell
19.1.4 Zinc Mercury Battery
19.2 Accumulators
19.2.1 Lead Accumulator
19.2.2 Nickel-cadmium Accumulator
19.2.3 Nickel-metal Hydride Accumulator
19.2.4 Lithium-ion Accumulator
19.3 Fuel Cells
19.4 Electrochemical Corrosion
19.4.1 Local Elements
19.4.2 Cathodic Corrosion Protection
20: Electrolysis
20.1 Electrode Processes
20.1.1 Electrophoresis
20.1.2 Electrolysis
20.1.3 Decomposition Voltage
Example
20.2 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
20.2.1 Dischargeability Series
20.2.2 Faraday´s Law
Example
20.3 Applications of Electrolysis
20.3.1 Chlorine-alkali Electrolysis
20.3.2 Fused-salt Electrolysis
20.3.3 Aluminium Extraction
20.3.4 Metal Refining
20.3.5 Anodising Process
20.3.6 Electroplating
20.4 Terms of Electrochemistry
20.4.1 Electrolysis terms
20.4.2 Comparison Cathode/Anode
Part VIII: Radioactivity
21: Background Knowledge ``Radiation´´
21.1 Waves and Wave Radiation
Another Example Will Illustrate the Wave Nature
21.1.1 Electromagnetic Waves
Example
21.1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum
21.1.3 Energy Unit Electron Volt (eV)
21.1.4 Energy and Mass
21.1.5 X-Rays
21.1.5.1 Properties of X-Rays
21.1.6 Luminescence, Phosphorescence and Fluorescence
21.1.6.1 Luminescence
21.1.6.2 Phosphorescence
21.1.6.3 Fluorescence
21.2 Particle Radiation
21.3 Excursus: Ionizing Radiation
21.3.1 Labelling of Ionising and Non-ionising Radiation
21.3.1.1 Application PID
22: History of Radioactivity
22.1 Beginnings
22.1.1 Becquerel´s Photoplate Experiment
22.1.2 Discovery of New Elements
22.1.3 Non-uniform Radiation
22.1.4 Nuclear Conversion
22.1.5 Artificial Radioactivity
22.1.6 Discovery of Nuclear Fission
22.2 Developments
22.2.1 The First Nuclear Reactor
22.2.2 Nuclear Weapons
23: Radioactivity: Terms and Notations
23.1 Notations of Nuclear Chemistry
23.1.1 Atomic Number Z
23.1.2 Mass Number A
23.1.3 Nuclide Notation
Example
23.2 Terms Relating to Nuclides and Isotopes
23.2.1 Number of Neutrons N
23.2.2 Nuclide
23.2.3 Isotopes
23.2.4 Pure Elements
23.2.5 Mixed Elements
23.2.6 Isobares
23.2.7 Isotones
23.2.8 Core Isomers
Overview Core Isomers
24: The Atomic Nucleus
24.1 Structure
24.1.1 Droplet Model
24.1.2 Shell Model
24.2 Forces in the Core
24.2.1 Strong Nuclear Power
24.2.2 Weak Interaction
24.2.2.1 Neutrino
24.2.2.2 Stability of the Proton
24.3 Stability of the Atomic Nucleus
24.3.1 Nuclear Binding Energy
Example
25: Radioactive Decay
25.1 Representation of Nuclear Reactions
25.1.1 Nuclear Reaction Equation
25.1.2 Abbreviated Nuclear Reaction Equation
25.1.3 Conversion Scheme
Consider the Decay of Radium
25.2 α-decay
25.2.1 Origin of α-radiation
Example: Decay of Th-232 to Ra-228
25.2.2 Properties of α-radiation
25.2.3 α-capture
25.3 β-decay
25.3.1 Origin of β--radiation
25.3.2 Origin of β+-radiation
25.3.3 Properties of β-radiation
25.3.3.1 Bremsstrahlung
25.3.4 Nuclear Reaction ``K-capture´´
25.3.5 Cherenkov Radiation
25.4 γ-transition
25.4.1 Origin of γ-radiation
25.4.2 Properties of γ-radiation
25.4.3 Interactions of γ-radiation
25.4.3.1 Photoelectric Effect
25.4.3.2 Compton Effect
25.4.3.3 Comparison of Photoelectric Effect and Compton effect
25.4.3.4 Pair Formation and Pair Destruction
25.4.3.5 Nuclear Photoelectric Effect
25.5 Summary
26: Nuclide Cards
26.1 Current Nuclide Maps
26.1.1 Nuclide Overview
26.1.2 Section of a Nuclide Map
26.1.3 Decay types in the nuclide map
Example
27: Units of Measurement of the Radiation of Radioactive Substances
27.1 Radiation Protection Units
27.1.1 Impulse Rate (ips)
27.1.2 Activity A
Examples of Activities
27.1.3 Half-Life T1/2
Example Calculation
27.1.3.1 Relationship Between Activity and Half-Life
27.1.3.2 Illustration of the half-life
27.1.4 Absorbed Dose D
27.1.5 Equivalent dose H
27.1.5.1 Radiation Weighting Factor wR
27.1.6 Effective Dose Equivalent Heff
27.1.6.1 Tissue Weighting Factor wT
27.1.7 Dose rate
27.1.8 Ion Dose J
27.1.9 Gamma Dose Rate Constant ΓH
Example Calculation
Overview: Units of Measurement in Radiation Protection
27.2 Other Units of Radiation Protection
27.2.1 Activity in Curie
27.2.2 Absorbed Dose in Rad
27.2.3 Equivalent Dose in Rem
27.2.4 Ion Dose in Roentgen
28: Measuring Instruments for Radiation Emitted by Radioactive Substances
28.1 Measuring Principles
28.1.1 Ionization Counter
28.1.2 Photochemical reaction
28.1.3 Scintillation Counter
28.1.4 Semiconductor Counter
28.1.5 Neutron Counter
28.1.6 Further Detection and Measurement Options
28.2 Measuring Instruments for Ionizing Radiation in Firefighting Operations
28.2.1 Overview of the Measuring and Detection Equipment
28.2.2 Film Dosimeter
28.2.3 Dose Warning Devices
28.2.4 Dose Rate Warning Devices
28.2.5 Dose Rate Meters
28.2.6 Contamination Detection Equipment
28.2.7 NBR Probe
28.2.8 Further Measuring/Detection Devices
28.2.9 Supplement: Measured Variable
Summary
29: Radiation Exposure
29.1 Environmental Radioactivity
29.1.1 Cosmic Radiation
29.1.2 Terrestrial Radiation
29.1.3 Ingestion of Radionuclides
29.1.4 Radon Inhalation
29.2 Civilisational Radiation Exposure
29.2.1 Medical Sources
29.2.2 Technical Applications
29.2.3 Reactor Accidents and Nuclear Bomb Tests
29.3 Total Load on Average
30: Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
30.1 Types of Radiation Damage
30.1.1 Early Damage
30.1.2 Late Damage
30.1.3 Genetic Damage
30.2 Radiobiological Reaction Chain
30.2.1 Time Course of the Physical-Biological Processes
30.2.2 Processes at the Molecular Level
30.2.3 Cellular processes
30.2.4 Classification of Radiation Damage
30.3 Factor dependence of the radiation effect
30.3.1 Overview of Radiation Effect Factors
30.3.2 Ionization Density
30.3.3 Relative Radiation Sensitivity
30.3.4 Radiation Sensitivity of Animals
31: Use of Radioactive Substances
31.1 Application in the fire brigade
31.1.1 Ion Mobility Spectrometer (IMS)
31.2 Applications in Technology
31.3 Applications in Science
31.4 Applications in medicine
32: Nuclear Reactions
32.1 Artificial Nuclear Transformations
32.2 Nuclear Fission
32.2.1 Controlled Nuclear Fission
32.2.2 Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission
32.2.3 Nuclear Power Plants
32.3 Nuclear Fusion
32.4 Nuclear Weapons
32.4.1 Atomic Bomb
32.4.2 Hydrogen Bomb
32.4.3 Nuclear Crime
32.4.4 Radiological Weapons
33: Labelling of Radioactive Substances and Areas
33.1 Transport Labeling
33.1.1 Marking of Vehicles
33.1.2 Marking of Packages
33.1.2.1 Fissile Material
33.1.3 Workplace Labeling
33.1.3.1 Classification into Fire Brigade Hazard Groups
33.1.3.2 Radiation Protection Areas
33.1.3.3 IAEA Supplementary Marking
34: Protection Against Ionizing Radiation
34.1 Basic Behavior
34.1.1 Incorporation
34.1.2 Contamination/Contamination Transfer
34.2 Specific Protective Measures
34.2.1 ALARA Principle
34.2.2 Switch Off
34.2.3 Distance
34.2.4 Duration of Stay (time factor)
Calculation Example
34.2.5 Shielding/Covering
34.2.6 Combination of Measures
Example
34.3 Procedure According to Hazard Groups
34.3.1 Special Operational Situations
Part IX: Energy Conversion of Chemical Reactions
35: Energy
35.1 Law of Conservation of Energy
35.2 Definitions
35.2.1 Systems
35.2.2 State Functions
35.3 Energies
35.3.1 Energy Conversion of Chemical Reactions
35.3.2 Reaction Energy E
35.3.3 Intrinsic Energy U
35.4 Enthalpy H
35.4.1 Energy of Formation and Enthalpy of Formation
35.4.2 Reaction Enthalpy
35.4.3 The Theorem of Hess
35.4.4 Born-Haber Cycle
Example
35.5 Entropy S
35.5.1 Reaction Entropy
35.6 The Driving Force of Chemical Reactions
35.6.1 Relationships ΔHR, ΔSR and ΔGR
35.7 Transitions
35.7.1 Transition Complexes
35.7.2 Activation Energy
36: Catalysis
36.1 Introduction to Catalysis
36.2 Influences of a Catalyst
36.2.1 Catalysis and Activation Energy
36.2.2 Catalysis and Reaction Rate
36.2.3 Viewing the Energy Diagram
36.2.4 Catalysis and Reaction Course
36.2.5 Catalyst Selectivity
36.2.6 Promoters
36.3 Aggregate States of Catalysts
36.3.1 Homogeneous Catalysis
36.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis
36.3.3 Catalysis in Everyday Life
36.4 Inhibition
36.4.1 Extinguishing Powder
36.4.2 Halons
36.5 Catalyst Poisons
Part X: Burning and Extinguishing
37: Fire and Blazes
37.1 Fire - An Oxidation Process
37.1.1 Slow Oxidation
37.1.2 Rapid Oxidation
37.1.3 Very Rapid Oxidation
38: The Process of Burning
38.1 Requirements for Burning
38.2 Combustible Substance
38.2.1 Influence of the Molecular Structure on the Flammability
38.2.2 Influence of Non-combustible Elements on Combustibility
38.2.3 Classification of Flammable Substances I: Chemical-Physical
38.2.4 Classification of Flammable Substances II: Fire Classes
38.2.5 Fire Behavior of Building Materials
38.2.6 Fire Behavior of Building Components
38.3 Oxygen
38.3.1 Free Oxygen of the Air
38.3.2 Pure Oxygen
38.3.3 Bound Oxygen
38.3.4 Oxygen-Free Oxidizing Agents
38.3.5 Oxygen Measurement
Rough Calculation
38.3.6 Influence on the Course of Combustion
38.3.6.1 Ignitability
38.3.6.2 Explosion Range
38.3.6.3 Combustion Rate
38.3.6.4 Combustion Temperature
38.3.7 Minimum Oxygen Concentration
38.3.8 Oxygen Index OI
38.3.9 Combustion Equation
38.3.10 Oxygen Demand or Air Demand
38.4 Ignition Energy
38.4.1 External Ignition
38.4.2 Spontaneous Ignition
38.4.3 Minimum Ignition Energy
38.4.4 Influence of the Ignition Energy on the Explosion Range
38.5 Mixing Ratio
38.5.1 Influence of the Mixing Ratio on the Combustible System
38.5.2 Influence of Temperature on the Mixing Ratio
38.5.2.1 Flash Point/Inflammation Point
38.5.2.2 Lower and Upper Explosion Point (tex)
38.5.3 Influence of the Surface on the Mixing Ratio
38.5.3.1 Extinguishing Agent Surface
38.5.4 Further Influencing Variables
38.6 Combustion Catalyst
39: Explosions
39.1 Differentiation of Explosion Processes
39.1.1 Explosions with a Chemical or Physical Cause
39.1.2 Reaction Speed for Explosions
39.1.2.1 Slow Deflagration
39.1.2.2 Deflagration
39.1.2.3 Detonation
39.1.3 Differentiation According to Explosive Medium
39.1.3.1 Gas Explosions
39.1.3.2 Dust Explosions
39.1.3.3 Explosive Substances
39.2 Explosion Indicators
39.2.1 Damage Due to Pressure Waves
39.2.2 Flame Propagation Velocity vF
39.2.3 Limiting Oxygen Concentration φO,min
39.2.4 Maximum Explosion Pressure pmax
Stoichiometric Composition of a Vapor
39.2.5 Maximum Pressure Rise over Time (dp/dt)max
39.2.6 Cubic Law: KG and KSt Value
40: The Chemistry of Combustion
40.1 Chain Reactions
40.1.1 Radical Chain Reactions
40.1.1.1 Chain Start: Homolysis
40.1.1.2 Chain Propagation
40.1.1.3 Chain Termination
40.1.1.4 Initiators and Inhibitors
40.1.2 Unbranched Chain Reaction
40.1.3 Branched-Chain Reaction
40.1.4 Incineration of Organic Materials
40.1.5 Course of Chain Reactions
40.2 Fire Course
40.2.1 Fire Progression Curve
40.2.2 Rate of Fire Spread
40.2.3 Special Phenomena of the Course of Fire
40.2.3.1 Flash-Over
40.2.3.2 Back-Draft
40.2.3.3 Roll-Over
40.2.4 Pyrolysis
40.3 Flue Gases
40.3.1 Fire Gases
40.3.1.1 Fire Gas Volume VFG
40.3.2 Fire Smoke
40.4 Energy Turnover During Fires
40.4.1 Minimum Combustion Temperature
40.4.2 Caloric Value (Hs) and Heating Value (Hi)
40.4.3 Burning Velocity and Burning Rate
40.4.4 Fire Load Density (q)
40.4.5 Fire Load Density (Ifi)
40.4.6 Heat Release Rate (Q)
40.4.7 Extinguishing Water Demand
40.4.8 Example Calculations
41: Extinguishing
41.1 Extinguishing Methods
41.1.1 Extinguishing by Cooling
41.1.2 Extinguishing by Suffocation: Separation
41.1.3 Extinguishing by Suffocation: Dilute
41.1.4 Delete by Suffocation: Reducing
41.1.5 Reaction-Inhibiting Extinguishing Effect
41.1.5.1 Homogeneous Inhibition
41.1.5.2 Heterogeneous Inhibition/Wall Effect
41.2 Extinguishing Agent
41.2.1 Water
41.2.1.1 Application Limits
41.2.1.2 Room Cooling/Temperature Check/Flue Gas Cooling
41.2.2 Foam
41.2.2.1 Admixing Rate
41.2.2.2 Foaming Ratio
41.2.2.3 Foam Destroying Influences
41.2.2.4 Foam Application Notes
41.2.2.5 Environmental Protection and Foam Using
41.2.2.6 Diffusion of Flammable Vapours
41.2.3 Special Foams
41.2.3.1 Water Film Forming Foams (AFFF)
41.2.3.2 Compressed Air Foam System (CAFS)
41.2.4 Extinguishing Powder
41.2.4.1 Particle Sizes and Surfaces
41.2.5 Carbon dioxide CO2
41.2.5.1 Application Limits
41.2.6 Extinguishing Agents for Burning Fat
41.2.7 Other Extinguishing Agents
41.2.7.1 Sand, Cement, Grey Cast Iron Filings, Common Salt
41.2.7.2 Hollow Glass Granulate
41.2.7.3 Halon Substitutes
42: Flame Retardants
42.1 Flame Retardant
42.1.1 Halogenated Flame Retardants
42.1.1.1 Application Examples
42.1.1.2 Mode of Operation
42.1.2 Inorganic Flame Retardants
42.1.2.1 Application Examples
42.1.2.2 Mode of Operation
42.1.3 Flame Retardants with Organic Nitrogen
42.1.4 Phosphorus as a Flame Retardant
42.1.5 Flame Retardants Based on Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds
42.1.6 Flame Retardants Based on Organic Phosphorus Compounds
42.1.7 Clothing with Flame Protection
42.2 Intumescent Coatings
42.2.1 Applications
42.2.2 Mode of Operation
Part XI: Organic Chemistry
43: Indispensable Organic
43.1 Introduction
43.1.1 Demarcation Organic Inorganic Chemistry
43.1.2 Why Carbon?
43.1.3 Basic Structure of Organic Compounds
43.1.4 Functional Groups
44: Hydrocarbons
44.1 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
44.1.1 Alkanes
44.1.1.1 Formula Representation
44.1.1.2 Branched Chains
44.1.1.3 Nomenclature of the Alkanes
44.1.1.4 Examples, Occurrence, Properties, Use
44.1.2 Alkenes
44.1.2.1 Cis-Trans Isomerism
44.1.2.2 (Z)-(E)-Isomerism
44.1.2.3 Polyene
44.1.2.4 Examples, Production, Use, Reactions
44.1.3 Alkine
44.1.3.1 Examples, Production, Use, Reactions
44.2 Excursus: Bonding Ratios at the C Atom
44.2.1 Electron Structure of the C Atom
44.2.2 sp3 Hybridization
44.2.3 sp2 Hybridization
44.2.4 sp-Hybridization
44.3 Annular Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
44.3.1 Cyclic Hydrocarbons
44.3.2 Bicyclic and Polycyclic Compounds
44.4 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
44.4.1 Simple Aromatic Compounds
44.4.1.1 Naming of Simple Aromatic Compounds
44.4.2 Polynuclear Aromatic Compounds
44.4.3 Condensed Aromatic Compounds
45: Organic Halogen Compounds
45.1 The ``Dirty Dozen´´ of Halogen Compounds
46: Organic Oxygen Compounds
46.1 Alcohols
46.1.1 Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Alcohols
46.1.1.1 Oxidation of Primary Alcohols
46.1.1.2 Oxidation of Secondary Alcohols
46.1.1.3 Oxidation of Tertiary Alcohols
46.1.2 Polyhydric Alcohols
46.1.3 Phenols
46.2 Aldehydes
46.3 Ketones
46.4 Ether
46.4.1 Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Ether
46.4.2 Cyclic Ethers
46.4.2.1 Crown Ether
46.5 Carboxylic Acids
46.5.1 Monocarboxylic Acids
46.5.2 Halogenated Carboxylic Acids
46.5.3 Dicarboxylic Acids
46.5.4 Carboxylic Acid Anhydrides
46.6 Ester
46.7 Peroxides
46.7.1 Peroxycarboxylic Acids
47: Organic Nitrogen Compounds
47.1 Amines
47.1.1 Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Amines
47.1.2 Quaternary Ammonium Salts
47.1.3 Alkaloids
47.1.4 Amino Acids
47.2 Nitro Compounds
47.2.1 Nitric Acid Ester
47.3 Nitrile
47.4 Isocyanates
47.5 Carboxylic Acid Amides
47.6 Azo Compounds
48: Organic Sulphur Compounds
48.1 Thiols
48.2 Thioethers and Disulphides
48.3 Sulphonic Acids
48.4 Sulphoxides and Sulphones
49: Plastics
49.1 Classification According to Thermal Properties
49.1.1 Thermoplastics
49.1.2 Thermosets
49.1.3 Elastomers
49.2 Classification According to Education Mechanisms
49.2.1 Polymerization
49.2.2 Polycondensation
49.2.3 Polyaddition
49.3 Fully Synthetic/Partially Synthetic Plastics
49.4 Important Plastics
49.4.1 Polyolefins: Polyethylene (Polyethene, PE) and Polypropylene (Polypropene, PP)
49.4.2 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and Polytetrafluoroethylene (Polytetrafluoroethene, PTFE)
49.4.3 Polyamides (PA)
49.4.4 Polyurethanes (PUR/PU)
49.4.5 Formaldehyde Plastics
49.4.6 ``Organic glasses´´: PMMA & PC
49.4.7 Polystyrene (PS)
49.4.8 Other polymers
49.5 Fire Behaviour of Plastics
49.5.1 Heating values in comparison
49.5.2 Fire Behaviour When Different Substances Come Together
49.5.3 Burning Behaviour of Pure Plastics
49.5.4 Smoke Generation from Plastics
50: Surfactants
50.1 Structure and Surfactant Groups
50.2 Excursus: Fats and Oils
50.2.1 Fat Hardening
50.2.2 Saponification
50.3 Mode of Action of the Surfactants
50.3.1 Surface Tension
50.3.2 Micellation
50.3.3 Foaming
50.4 Surfactants in Fire Fighting
50.4.1 Surfactants as Wetting Agents
50.4.2 Surfactants and Electrical Conductivity
50.4.3 Fluorine-Containing vs. Fluorine-Free Foam Agents
Part XII: CBRNE Hazards
51: Poisons
51.1 General Information on Poisons
51.1.1 Poisons and Poison Effects
51.1.2 Therapy of Poisoning
51.2 Labelling and Classification of Toxic Substances
51.2.1 GHS Classification
51.2.2 Transport Law
51.2.3 Classification into Fire Brigade Hazard Groups
51.3 Operational Measures
51.3.1 Human Life in Danger
51.3.2 Body Protection
51.3.3 Action Group 6 ``Toxic Substances´´
52: Chemical Warfare Agents
52.1 Introduction
52.1.1 Definition
52.1.2 Early Bans on Chemical Weapons
52.1.3 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
52.1.4 War Weapons Control Act
52.1.5 ``Dual Use´´ Substances & equipment
52.1.6 Classification of Chemical Warfare Agents
52.2 Physical, Chemical and Toxicological Properties of Warfare Agents
52.2.1 Melting and Boiling Point
52.2.2 Vapour Pressure pD
52.2.3 Saturation Concentration cS
52.2.4 Sedentariness
52.2.5 Latency
52.2.6 Resistances
52.2.7 Mean Lethal Concentration-Time Product (Lct50)
52.2.8 Combat Incapacitating Concentration Time Product (Ict50)
52.2.9 Mean Lethal Dose (LD50)
52.2.10 Threshold Value and Tolerance Limit
52.2.11 Poison Strength pLD
52.2.12 Detection of C Warfare Agents
52.3 Irritants
52.3.1 Eye Irritants
52.3.2 Nasopharyngeal Irritants
52.3.3 Protective Measures and Decontamination
52.3.4 Irritant Industrial Chemicals
52.4 Pulmonary Warfare Agents
52.4.1 Protective Measures and Decontamination
52.5 Blood Warfare Agents
52.5.1 Protective Measures and Decontamination
52.6 Skin Warfare Agents
52.6.1 Type ``S-Lost´´
52.6.2 Type ``N-Lost
52.6.3 Type ``Lewisite´´
52.6.4 Protective Measures and Decontamination
52.7 Nerve Agents
52.7.1 Mode of Action
52.7.2 Tabun
52.7.3 Sarin
52.7.4 Soman
52.7.5 VX
52.7.6 Protective Measures and Decontamination
52.7.7 Other Nerve Agents
52.7.7.1 Tammelin´s Ester
52.7.7.2 Novichok Group
52.7.7.3 Comparison of the Structures
52.8 Psychotoxic Warfare Agents
52.8.1 Protective Measures and Decontamination
52.9 Sabotage Poisons
52.9.1 Examples of Sabotage Poisons
52.9.2 Targets
52.10 Strategic Ordnance
52.11 Binary CWA
52.12 Final Remark C-Weapons
53: Biological Substances
53.1 Introduction
53.1.1 Fields of Application of Biotechnology
53.2 Classification of Biological Agents
53.2.1 Bacteria
Examples of Diseases Caused by Human Pathogenic Bacteria
53.2.2 Viruses
Examples of Human Pathogenic Viruses or Viral Diseases
53.2.3 Mushrooms
53.2.4 Rickettsia
53.2.5 Prions
53.3 Classification of Biological Agents - Criteria
53.3.1 Infection Rate/Transmissibility
53.3.2 Infectivity
Examples of Infectious Doses
53.3.3 Incubation Time
53.3.4 Lethality
53.3.5 Morbidity
53.3.6 Mortality
53.3.7 Pathogenicity
53.3.8 Stability/Tenacity
53.3.9 Toxicity
53.3.10 Virulence
53.4 Classification of Biological Agents - Risk Groups
53.5 Labelling and Classification of Biological Agents
53.5.1 Transport Law
53.5.2 Workplace Labeling
53.5.3 Classification into Fire Brigade Hazard Groups
53.6 Operational Measures
53.6.1 Scenarios for the Release of Biological Agents
53.6.2 Principles of Use
53.6.3 Human Life in Danger
53.6.4 Body Protection
54: Biological Agents
54.1 Introduction
54.1.1 Biological Weapons Convention
54.1.2 War Weapons Control Act
54.1.3 ``Dual Use´´
54.1.4 Detection of Biological Warfare Agents
54.1.5 Risks from B Attacks
54.2 Classification of Pathogens and Toxins
54.3 Important Bacteria and Viruses
54.3.1 Anthrax
54.3.2 Plague
54.3.3 Tularaemia
54.3.4 Brucellosis
54.3.5 Q-Fever
54.3.6 Glanders & Melioidosis
54.3.7 Cholera
54.3.8 Smallpox
54.3.9 Equine Encephalitis (VEE, WEE, EEE)
54.3.10 Viral Haemorrhagic Fever (VHF)
54.4 Important Toxins
54.4.1 Botulinum Toxin (BTX)
54.4.2 Ricin
54.4.3 SEB
54.4.4 T2 Mycotoxin
54.4.5 Saxitoxin
55: Explosives
55.1 Explosives Hazards
55.2 Labelling of Explosive Substances and Goods
55.2.1 Transport Law
55.2.2 Workplace Marking
55.2.3 NATO Ammunition Fire Classes
55.3 Operational Measures
55.3.1 Human Life in Danger
55.3.2 Group of Measures ``1 Explosive substances and articles´´
55.3.3 Operation Sequence
55.3.4 Suspicion of Terrorist Attacks
Afterword
Tables and Figures
Bibliography
1. General Literature
2. Chemistry, Total
3. General and Inorganic Chemistry
4. Organic Chemistry
5. Physical Chemistry
6. Physics Textbooks
7. General Firefighting Literature
8. Encyclopedias, Tables and Reference Works
9. Hazardous Substances / Dangerous Goods / Warfare Agents / Toxicology
10. Radioactivity, Radiation Protection
11. Chemical Reaction and Chemical Engineering
12. Burning and Extinguishing
13. Magazines and Articles
Index