The Chemistry and Bioactive Components of Turmeric

Cover
The Chemistry and Bioactive Components of Turmeric
Preface
Contents
Chapter 1 - Turmeric – The Miraculous Herb from Ancient India and its Historical Background
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Turmeric (Haridra) – in the Vedic Period
1.3 Haridra in Nighantus
1.4 Varieties of Haridra
1.5 Rasa Panchaka (Five Properties of Drug) of Haridra and its Therapeutic Effects
1.6 Haridra in Ayurveda Treatises – Charaka Samhitha, Ashtanga Hrudayam, Susrutha Samhitha and Sarngadhara Samhitha
1.7 The Drug Groups of Haridra
1.8 The Main Named Formulations of Haridra
1.9 Other Sources where Haridra is Mentioned in Ayurveda Treatises
1.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2 - Chemistry of Turmeric
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conventional Stratification on Turmeric
2.3 Turmeric Oleoresin
2.4 Volatile Oil and/or Non- curcuminoid Component of Turmeric
2.5 Constituents and Structural Studies of Turmeric oil and/or Non- curcuminoids
2.6 Analysis of Turmeric Essential Oil and/or Non- curcuminoids
2.7 Biological Activities of Volatile and/or Non- curcuminoid Compounds of Turmeric
2.8 Non- volatile Components of Turmeric
2.8.1 Constituents and Structural Studies of Non- volatile Components of Turmeric
2.8.2 Analysis of Non- volatile Turmeric Compounds
2.9 Biological Activities of Non- volatile Compounds of Turmeric
2.10 Biosynthesis of Curcumin
2.11 Stability Studies of Curcumin
2.12 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3 - Geographical Variations of Turmeric and Curcumin
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Studies on the Variations of Curcumin Content
3.3 Studies on the Variation in Essential Oil Content
3.4 Genetic Variations and Environmental Factors on the Yield and Quality of Turmeric
3.4.1 Factors with the Curcumin Synthase (CURS) Gene
3.4.2 Genetic Diversity in Different Agro- climatic Regions
3.4.3 Effect of Agro- climatic Zones in a Single Cultivar
3.4.4 Effect of Agro- climatic Zones on Different Cultivars
3.5 Agricultural Study Patterns
3.5.1 Experiments by Greenhouse Studies
3.5.2 Field Trials
3.6 Molecular Markers' Studies
3.7 Different Techniques and Technologies Regarding Curcumin Content
3.8 Effect of Maturity in Curcumin Content
3.9 Studies on Growth, Yield and Quality Parameters with Agro- climatic Zones in India
3.10 Agricultural Practices and Processing Methods
3.11 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4 - Turmeric – Active Ingredients Other than Curcuminoids
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Chemical Composition of Turmeric
4.2.2 Terpenes
4.2.3 Flavonoids
4.3 Other Important Components in Turmeric
4.3.1 Polysaccharides
4.3.2 Starch
4.3.3 Dietary Fiber
4.3.4 Cellulose
4.3.5 Pectin
4.3.6 Turmeric Protein
4.4 Biological Activities of the Active Ingredients of Turmeric
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 5 - Curcuminoids – Isolation, Formulations and Bioavailability Problems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Discovery of Curcumin
5.3 Isolation of Curcumin
5.4 Physical, Chemical and Molecular Properties of Curcuminoids
5.5 Why are Formulations Needed for Curcumin
5.6 Different Formulations
5.6.1 Adjuvants for Bioavailability Enhancement
5.6.2 Enhancement through Nanotechnology
5.6.3 Micronized Formulations
5.6.4 Encapsulation
5.6.5 Curcumin Formulations Incorporating Lipid Matrices
5.6.5.1 Micellar Formulations
5.6.5.2 Phospholipid Formulations
5.6.6 Reconstitution with Non- curcuminoids
5.6.7 Complete Natural Turmeric Matrix
5.7 The Narrative of Bioavailability
5.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 - Curcumin Pharmacokinetics and Plasma Determination
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Curcumin Metabolism
6.3 Hydrolysis vs. No Hydrolysis of Plasma Samples
6.4 Pharmacokinetic Studies
6.5 Discussion
6.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 7 - Curcumin: A Potential Molecule for the Prevention and Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Molecular Targets of Curcumin in Inflammation
7.3 Curcumin for the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases
7.4 Curcumin and Inflammatory Diseases: Clinical Trials
7.4.1 Allergic Rhinitis
7.4.2 Asthma
7.4.3 Chronic Gastritis
7.4.4 Chronic Kidney Disease
7.4.5 Chronic Prostatitis
7.4.6 Gingivitis
7.4.7 Inflammatory Bowel Disease
7.4.8 Nephritis
7.4.9 Oral Lichen Planus
7.4.10 Oral Mucositis
7.4.11 Oral Submucous Fibrosis
7.4.12 Osteoarthritis
7.4.13 Peptic Ulcer
7.4.14 Periodontitis
7.4.15 Rheumatoid Arthritis
7.4.16 Tropical Pancreatitis
7.4.17 Ulcerative Proctitis
7.4.18 Uveitis
7.5 Conclusion
Conflict of Interest
References
Chapter 8 - Biological Activities of Curcuminoids
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Composition of Turmeric
8.2.1 Chemical Composition of Turmeric and Their Natural Analogues
8.2.2 Essential Oil Composition in Turmeric
8.2.3 Curcuminoids
8.2.4 Antioxidant Activity of Curcuminoids
8.3 Pharmacological Activities of Curcuminoids
8.3.1 Anti- inflammatory
8.3.2 Neuroprotective
8.3.3 Antidiabetic
8.3.4 Anticancer
8.3.5 Cardioprotective
8.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 9 - Biosynthesis of Curcumin and Molecular Targets and the Biological Mechanism of Curcumin
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biosynthesis of Curcumin
9.2.1 Natural Pathway of Curcumin Biosynthesis in C. longa
9.2.2 Artificial Pathways of Curcuminoid Biosynthesis in Recombinant E. coli
9.2.2.1 Biosynthesis of Curcuminoids from O. sativa
9.2.2.2 Production of Curcuminoids by Recombinant E. coli
9.2.2.3 Production of Curcumin from Rice Bran Pitch by Recombinant E. coli
9.3 Biological Mechanism of Curcumin and Molecular Targets
9.3.1 Pro- angiogenic Factors
9.3.2 Cell Cycle Regulators
9.3.3 Metastasis and Transcription Factors
9.3.4 Proteins Kinases
9.3.4.1 p53
9.3.4.2 SIRT
9.3.5 miRNA
9.3.6 DNA
9.3.7 Cellular Death
9.3.7.1 Apoptosis
9.3.7.2 Autophagy
9.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 - The Effect of Turmeric in Gut Diseases
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Importance of Turmeric and Its Active Constituent Curcumin
10.3 Mechanism of Action of CUR Against Gut Diseases
10.3.1 Inhibition of Transcription Factor NF-­ᴋB Activation and IᴋB Phosphorylation
10.3.2 Inhibition of Nitric Oxide Production
10.3.3 Inhibition of COX-
10.3.4 Inhibition of Cytokines
10.3.4.1 Inhibition of IFNγ and TNFα
10.3.4.2 Regulating Shift of TH1/TH2
10.4 Clinical Trials and Studies Conducted on CUR
10.5 Pharmaceutical Formulations of CUR
10.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 11 - Molecular Docking Studies of Curcumin
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Molecular Properties of Curcumin
11.3 Interaction and Binding Mechanism of Curcumin
11.4 Molecular Docking Studies of Curcumin
11.5 Molecular Docking Studies of Curcumin Analogs
11.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12 - Biological Activities of Non- curcuminoids
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Non- curcuminoid in Turmeric
12.3 Anticancer Effects of C. longa STs
12.3.2 Cytotoxic and Anti- tumour Effect of Elemene- type of C. longa ST
12.3.2.1 Bone Cancer
12.3.2.2 Brain Cancer
12.3.2.3 Breast Cancer
12.3.2.4 Lung Cancer
12.3.2.5 Stomach Cancer
12.3.2.6 Other Types of Cancer
12.3.3 Cytotoxic and Anti- tumour Effect of Germacrane- type of C. longa STs
12.3.3.1 Breast Cancer
12.3.3.2 Other Types of Cancer
12.3.4 Cytotoxic and Anti- tumour Effect of Guaiane and Other Types of C. longa STs
12.3.5 Synergistic Effect of C. longa STs with Other Cancer Treatments
12.3.6 Current Progress of the Clinical Trial of C. longa STs
12.3.7 Limitations of the Current Anticancer Studies of C. longa STs
12.4 Immunomodulation Effect of C. longa STs
12.5 Hepatoprotective Activity of C. longa STs
12.6 Neuroprotective Effect of C. longa STs
12.7 Analgesic/Depressive Activity of C. longa STs
12.8 Cardioprotective Activity of C. longa STs
12.9 Other Bioactivities of C. longa STs
12.10 Other Non- curcuminoids and their Bioactivities
12.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13 - Toxicology Aspects of Turmeric
13.1 Turmeric and Toxicology: An Overview
13.2 Factors Affecting the Toxicological Aspects of Turmeric
13.2.1 Interactions of Turmeric as a Therapeutic Adjuvant
13.2.1.1 Turmeric–Drug–Disease–Herb–Food Interactions
13.3 Marketed Turmeric Formulations and Toxicological Aspects
13.4 Methods for Early Prediction of Toxicity
13.4.1 Chemoinformatics
13.4.2 Ayur- informatics
13.5 Management of Turmeric Toxicity
13.5.1 Traditional Methods to Ensure the Safety of Turmeric and Its Formulations
13.6 Turmeric – Hype or Hope
13.7 Limitations and Future Perspective
13.8 Discussion and Conclusion
Conflict of Interest
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 14 - Production, Economics and Marketing of Turmeric
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Production of Turmeric
14.2.1 Global Scenario
14.2.2 Indian Scenario
14.3 Varieties of Turmeric
14.4 State- wise Production
14.4.1 Telangana
14.4.2 Maharashtra
14.4.3 Other States
14.5 Economics, Factors and Trends in Turmeric Production
14.5.1 Economics of Turmeric Production
14.5.2 Constraints for Turmeric Production
14.5.3 Trend in Turmeric Production
14.6 Marketing
14.6.1 Products of Commercial Importance
14.6.2 Organic Turmeric
14.6.3 Fresh Rhizome
14.6.4 Dried Rhizome
14.6.5 Turmeric Oleoresin/Oil
14.6.6 Turmeric Oil
14.6.7 Curcumin 95%
14.6.8 Bioavailable Curcuminoids
14.6.9 Encapsulated Products
14.6.10 Value- added Products
14.6.11 Turmeric and Ayurveda
14.7 Export and Import Scenario
14.7.1 Factors Dominating the Trade/export
14.7.2 Export Market
14.7.3 Import
14.8 Market Structure
14.9 Marketing Prospects
14.10 Risks and Uncertainty
14.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 - Nanodrug Delivery Formulations for Curcumin Absorption
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Nanotechnology Approaches to Overcome Curcumin's Inherent Constraints
15.3 Curcumin Nanoformulations
15.3.1 Lipid- based Nanoformulations
15.3.1.1 Liposomes
15.3.1.2 Solid Lipids Nanoparticles (SLNs)
15.3.2 Polymeric Nanostructures
15.3.2.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles
15.3.2.2 Polymeric Micelles
15.3.2.3 Polymeric Nanofibers
15.3.3 Conjugates
15.3.4 Peptide/Protein Carriers
15.3.5 Cyclodextrins
15.3.6 Metallic Nanoparticles
15.3.6.1 Gold Nanoparticles
15.3.6.2 Silver Nanoparticles
15.3.6.3 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
15.4 Conclusions and Prospects
References
Chapter 16 - Curcumin as Dietary Supplements Against Various Diseases: An Insight into the New Trends and Future Perspectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Oral Delivery of Curcumin Supplements – An ‘Achilles’ Heel’
16.2.1 Cardiovascular Diseases
16.2.2 Neurodegenerative Disorders
16.2.3 Growth and Hormones
16.2.4 Bacterial and Viral Infection
16.2.5 Diabetes
16.2.6 Bone Health
16.2.7 Gastrointestinal Diseases
16.3 Encapsulation – A Benignant Revelation for Curcumin Supplements
16.3.1 Food- grade Carrier Agent
16.3.2 Advanced Techniques
16.3.3 Novel Curcumin Encapsulates
16.4 Imminent Curcumin Encapsulated Supplements
16.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Conflict of Interest
Acknowledgements
References
Subject Index