Preface
Contents
About the Editors
1: The Future of Food from the Sea
1 Sustainably Increasing Food from the Sea
2 Estimated Sustainable Supply Curves
3 Estimates of Future Food from the Sea
4 Conclusions
5 Methods
5.1 Sustainable Supply Curves
5.2 Supply Meets Demand
5.3 Reporting Summary
5.4 Data Availability
5.5 Code Availability
Additional Information
References
2: The Expected Impacts of Climate Change on the Ocean Economy
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 The Ocean Economy: Essentials
1.2.1 The Market-Based Ocean Economy
1.2.2 The Nonmarket Ocean Economy
2 How Rising Greenhouse Gasses Alter the Ocean
2.1 Altered Ocean Temperatures and Disturbances
2.2 Sea Level Rise and an Altered Distribution of Ice
2.3 Altered Ocean Chemistry
2.4 Altered Circulation Patterns
3 Connecting the Links Between Climate Change and the Ocean Economy
3.1 Capture Fisheries
3.1.1 Importance of Capture Fisheries to the Ocean Economy
3.1.2 Impacts of Climate Change on Capture Fisheries
3.1.3 Ability for management to mitigate the impacts of climate change
3.1.4 Opportunities for action and key conclusions
3.2 Marine Aquaculture
3.2.1 Importance of Mariculture to the Ocean Economy
3.2.2 Impacts of climate change on mariculture
3.2.3 Potential for mariculture production to grow under climate change
3.2.4 Barriers and Trade-Offs in the Expansion of Mariculture
3.2.5 Adapting marine aquaculture to climate change
Selective Breeding for Fast Growth
Selective Breeding for Temperature Tolerance
Risk-Based Planning and Environmental Monitoring Systems
Access to Affordable Credit And Insurance
Reducing Feed Limitations for Fed Mariculture
3.2.6 Opportunities for action and key conclusions
3.3 Marine and Coastal Tourism
3.3.1 Importance of marine tourism to the ocean economy
3.3.2 Impacts of climate change on marine tourism
3.3.3 Economic Impacts
Economic Impacts on Coral Reef Tourism
Economic Impacts in Other Systems
Ocean Tourism and Equity
3.3.4 Opportunities for action and key conclusions
3.4 Improving the Energy Efficiency of the Ocean Economy
4 Impacts of Climate Change Mitigation in the Sea
4.1 Conserving and Expanding Blue Carbon
4.2 Expanding Ocean Renewables
4.3 Expanding Deep-Sea Mining to Meet Demand for Rare Earth Elements
4.4 Geoengineering Solutions
5 Conclusions and Opportunities for Action
5.1 Capture Fisheries
5.2 Aquaculture
5.3 Ocean Tourism
About the Authors
Co-authors
Contributing Authors
References
3: What Role for Ocean-Based Renewable Energy and Deep-Seabed Minerals in a Sustainable Future?
1 Introduction
1.1 What is Ocean-Based Renewable Energy?
1.2 Renewable Energy and the Demand for Metals
1.3 Minerals on the Deep Seafloor
2 Transition to a Sustainable Global Energy System—1.5 °C Scenarios
2.1 Characteristics of 1.5 °C Scenarios
2.2 Negative Emissions and Carbon Capture and Storage
3 Ocean-Based Renewable Energy
3.1 Offshore Wind
3.1.1 Technical Potential
3.1.2 Status of Technology and Costs
3.1.3 Future Development Scenarios
3.2 Other Ocean-Based Renewable Energy
3.2.1 Technical Potential
3.2.2 Status of Technology and Costs
3.2.3 Future Development Scenarios
4 Motivations for Deep-Seabed Mining
4.1 Will Deep-Seabed Mining Help Address Climate Change?
4.2 Can Metal Demand Be Reduced to Avoid Deep-Seabed Mining?
5 Sustainability Challenges and Enabling Conditions
5.1 Environment, Vulnerabilities and Costs
5.1.1 Environmental effects of ocean-based renewable energy deployment
5.1.2 Environmental Effects of Deep-Seabed Mining
5.1.3 The impacts of deep-seabed mining remain unknown
5.1.4 Deep-Seabed Mining Could Result in Loss of Species and Functions Before They Are Understood
5.1.5 The Challenges of Mitigation and Restoration of Ecosystems
5.2 Economic, Societal and Cultural Costs and Benefits
5.2.1 Benefits of Ocean-Based Renewable Energy
5.2.2 Benefits of Deep-Seabed Mining
5.2.3 Costs
5.2.4 Environmental Costs, Ecosystem Services Valuation, Tradeoffs and Intergenerational Equity
5.2.5 Decisions to mine
6 Governance and Regulatory Framework for Deep-Seabed Mining
6.1 State Level
6.2 International Level
6.3 Mining in the Context of the UN Sustainable Development Goals
7 Opportunities for Action
7.1 Ocean-Based Renewable Energy and the Global Energy System
7.2 Deep-Seabed Mining
Appendix: Detailed Opportunities for Action
Detailed Opportunities for Action for Ocean-Based Renewable Energy
Detailed Opportunity for Action 1
Detailed Opportunity for Action 2
Detailed Opportunities for Action Specifically for Deep- Seabed Mining
Detailed Opportunity for Action 3A and 3B
Detailed Opportunities for Action 4A and 4B
Detailed Opportunity for Action 5
Detailed Opportunity for Action 6
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributing Authors
References
4: The Ocean Genome: Conservation and the Fair, Equitable and Sustainable Use of Marine Genetic Resources
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Scope and Ambition
1.3 What Is the Ocean Genome and Why Is It Uniquely Important?
1.4 How Do We Benefit from the Ocean Genome?
1.5 How Is the Ocean Genome at Risk?
1.6 How Is the Ocean Genome Governed and Regulated?
2 Existing and Potential Benefits
2.1 Ecological Benefits Associated with Marine Genetic Diversity
2.2 Commercial Benefits of Marine Genetic Resources
2.2.1 Marine Drug Discovery
2.2.2 Nutraceuticals
2.2.3 Cosmetics
2.2.4 Aquaculture and New Food Products
2.2.5 Bulk Chemicals
2.2.6 Other Applications
3 Challenges
3.1 Threats to Conserving the Ocean Genome
3.1.1 Species Extinctions
3.1.2 Loss of Populations
3.1.3 Invasive Species
3.1.4 Cumulative Effects
3.2 Impediments to the Equitable Use of the Ocean Genome
3.2.1 Impediments to Innovation, Equity and Benefit Sharing
3.2.2 Regulating Fair and Equitable Access and Benefit Sharing
4 Pursuing Solutions
4.1 Conservation
4.1.1 Managing Competing Interests in the Ocean to Conserve Biodiversity
4.1.2 Protecting Storehouses of Genetic Diversity
4.1.3 Leveraging Biotechnology for Conservation and Biodiversity Management
4.2 Toward Responsible and Inclusive Research and Innovation
4.3 Equitable Governance and Benefit Sharing
5 Conclusion and Opportunities for Action
5.1 Opportunities for Action
5.1.1 Protect Marine Genetic Diversity as Part of Conservation Measures and Monitor Outcomes
5.1.2 Support Greater Equity in Genomics Research and Commercialisation
5.1.3 Promote Inclusive and Responsible Research and Innovation in Marine Genomics Research
5.1.4 Embed Conservation of the Ocean Genome Within Research and Commercialisation, Including Benefit-Sharing Approaches and Agreements
5.1.5 Disclose the Biological and Geographical Origins of Genetic Material as a Norm Across All Associated Commercial and Noncommercial Activities
5.1.6 Increase Financial and Political Support to Improve Knowledge of the Ocean Genome
5.1.7 Comprehensively Assess the Risks and Benefits of Transgenic Marine Organisms as well as the Use of New Molecular Engineering Technologies: Such as CRISPR-Cas (Gene Editing) and Gene Drives—In the Marine Environment
5.1.8 Strengthen the Role of Philanthropy in Providing Infrastructure and Funding for Marine Science
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributing Authors
Appendix
References
5: Leveraging Multi-target Strategies to Address Plastic Pollution in the Context of an Already Stressed Ocean
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Context
2 Sources of Ocean Pollution
2.1 Plastic Pollution
2.1.1 Municipal Plastic Pollution
2.1.2 Agricultural Plastic Pollution
2.1.3 Industrial Plastic Pollution
2.1.4 Maritime Plastic Pollution
2.2 Other Pollutants Compounding Ocean Stress
2.2.1 Other Municipal Solid Waste Pollution
2.2.2 Pesticide Pollution
2.2.3 Nutrient Pollution
2.2.4 Antibiotics and Other Pharmaceuticals
2.2.5 Heavy Metals, Persistent Organic Pollutants and Oil and Gas
2.2.6 Maritime Pollution
2.3 Compounding Effects of Multiple Pollutants
3 Impacts of Ocean Pollution on Ecosystems, Marine Life, Human Health and Economies
3.1 Impacts of Plastic
3.1.1 Impacts on Ecosystems and Marine Life
Microplastics
Macroplastics
Entanglement in Plastic Debris
Ingestion of Plastic Debris
Chemical Contamination from Plastic Debris
3.1.2 Human Health Impacts
Potential Pathways of Harm
Ingestion
Inhalation
Littering and Human Health
3.1.3 Economic Impacts
3.2 Impacts of Other Solid Waste
3.2.1 Impacts on Ecosystems and Marine Life
3.2.2 Human Health Impacts
3.2.3 Economic Impacts
3.3 Impacts of Pesticides
3.3.1 Impacts on Ecosystems and Marine Life
3.3.2 Human Health Impacts
3.3.3 Economic Impacts
3.4 Impacts of Nutrient Pollution
3.4.1 Impacts on Ecosystems and Marine Life
3.4.2 Human Health Impacts
3.4.3 Economic Impacts
3.5 Impacts of Antibiotics, Parasiticides and Other Pharmaceuticals
3.5.1 Impacts on Ecosystems and Marine Life
3.5.2 Human Health Impacts
3.6 Impacts of Industrial Chemicals Including Persistent Organic Pollutants
3.6.1 Impacts on Ecosystems and Marine Life
3.6.2 Human Health Impacts
3.6.3 Economic Impacts
3.7 Impacts of Heavy Metals
3.7.1 Impacts on Ecosystems and Marine Life
3.7.2 Human Health Impacts
3.7.3 Economic Impacts
3.8 Impacts of Oil and Gas
3.8.1 Impacts on Ecosystems and Marine Life
3.8.2 Human Health Impacts
3.8.3 Economic Impacts
3.9 Impacts Summary
3.9.1 Inputs Lead to Impacts
4 Human Dimensions
5 Opportunities for Action
About the Authors
Co-authors
Contributing Authors
References
6: Technology, Data and New Models for Sustainably Managing Ocean Resources
1 Introduction
2 The Data Explosion
2.1 Fostering New Scientific Understanding of the Ocean
2.2 Monitoring Human Activity
2.3 A Vision of an “IoT” for the Ocean
3 Tapping into the Explosion in Data Sources
3.1 Making Data Available
3.1.1 Tagging Standards
3.1.2 Federated Data Networks
3.1.3 Data Lakes
3.2 Extraction of Information and Translation
4 Harnessing the Technology Revolution to Transform Ocean Management
4.1 Public Management
4.1.1 Innovations in Management
4.1.2 Making Management Robust and Nimble
4.1.3 Automating Management Through Smart Contracts
4.2 Harnessing the Market
4.3 Ensuring That Technology Promotes Sustainability
5 Fostering Technological Innovations for the Ocean
5.1 Creating Market Incentives for Innovation and Diffusion
5.1.1 Governments
5.1.2 Private Sector
5.1.3 International Standards
5.2 Mobilising Investment
5.3 Creating New Business Models
5.3.1 Segmentation
5.3.2 Data Services
5.3.3 Innovations in Payment
6 Opportunities for Action
Appendix 1: Case Studies of Technology Deployment by JAMSTEC
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributing Authors
References
7: Coastal Development: Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements
1 Introduction
2 Coastal Changes and Challenges
2.1 Climate Changes and Coasts
2.2 Changes to Coastal Environments and Ecosystems
2.2.1 Coastal Landforms
2.2.2 Vegetated Coastal Ecosystems
2.2.3 Coral and Shellfish Reefs
2.3 Coastal Development Changes
2.3.1 Population Growth and Urbanisation
2.3.2 Infrastructure Development
2.3.3 Competition for Coastal Space
2.3.4 Resource Extraction
2.4 Summary
3 Risks to Coastal Resilience
3.1 Threats to Coastal Ecosystems
3.1.1 Habitat Clearing and Fragmentation
3.1.2 Pollution
3.1.3 Bio-invasions and Disease in Coastal Ecosystems
3.2 Risks to Coastal Ecosystem Services
3.2.1 Coastal Protection
3.2.2 Carbon Sequestration
3.2.3 Fisheries Productivity
3.3 Risks to Coastal Populations, Infrastructure and Economies
3.3.1 Populations
3.3.2 Infrastructure
3.4 Summary
4 Building Coastal Resilience
4.1 Protecting Coastal Ecosystems
4.2 Mitigating Catchment Impacts Through Terrestrial Reform
4.3 Adapting Coastal Infrastructure
4.4 Repairing Coastal Ecosystems
4.5 Coastal Co-benefits and Trade-Offs
4.5.1 Co-benefits
4.5.2 Trade-Offs
4.6 Enabling Conditions
5 Conclusions and Opportunities for Action
5.1 Conclusions
5.2 Opportunities for Action
5.2.1 Building Coastal Resilience
5.2.2 Creating Coastal Community Resilience, Equity and Access
5.2.3 Mitigation of Terrestrial and Extractive Activities on Coastal Ecosystems
5.2.4 Sustainable, Future-Ready Blue Infrastructure
5.3 Enabling Conditions to Support Coastal Resilience
Glossary
About the Authors
Co-authors
Contributing Authors
References
8: National Accounting for the Ocean and Ocean Economy
1 Introduction
2 Questions, Concepts and Standards for Ocean Accounting
2.1 Production as Means
2.2 Income as Ends
2.3 Sustainable Development and the Balance Sheet
2.4 Analysing Policy and Marine Planning
2.5 Satellite Accounts
2.6 Related Issues
2.6.1 Conceptual and Spatial Boundaries
2.6.2 Data and the Digital Revolution
2.6.3 Equity and National Accounts
2.7 Aspirations for the System of Ocean Accounts
3 Current State of Accounts for the Ocean
3.1 Internationally Agreed Frameworks
3.2 Implementation of Ocean Accounting
3.2.1 Product and Income Accounts
3.2.2 Balance Sheets, Natural Capital and Supply-and-Use Tables
3.2.3 Satellite Accounts
3.3 Country Implementation Globally
3.4 Supporting Programs and Other Actors
3.4.1 Motivating Reports
3.4.2 Illustrative Reports
3.4.3 Policy Reports
4 Guidance for a Path Forward
4.1 Four Principles of Accounting for a Sustainable Ocean Economy
4.2 Crosscutting Opportunities for Action for Developing Credible Ocean Accounting
4.2.1 Know the Condition of the Ocean
4.2.2 Use Valuation to Understand Economic Interconnections and Trade-Offs
5 Conclusion
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributing Authors
References
9: Ocean Finance: Financing the Transition to a Sustainable Ocean Economy
1 Introduction
2 Research Methodology
3 Current Barriers and Challenges to a SOE
3.1 Inadequate Frameworks and Taxonomies
3.1.1 The Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles
3.1.2 The United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative
3.1.3 The European Union Taxonomy
3.2 Gaps and Mismatches in Information, Awareness, Capacity and Scale
3.2.1 Inadequate Information and Awareness
3.2.2 Mismatched Capacity and Scale
3.3 The Market Dynamics Are Distorted
3.3.1 Fiscal Policies Undermine a SOE
Beneficiaries Do not Adequately Pay for Access or Management of Ocean Resources
3.3.2 An Unequal Distribution of Costs and Benefits
3.4 The Investment Pipeline Is Weak
3.4.1 Limited Availability of High-Quality, Investible Projects
3.5 High Risks Without an Enabling Regulatory Environment
3.5.1 Environmental Complexities, Untested Interventions, and Patchy Regulatory and Governance Frameworks
4 Opportunities for Action
4.1 Set Up and Implement New (Shared) Rules, Guardrails and Guidelines
4.2 Strengthen Knowledge, Data and Capacity in Ocean Health and Finance
4.3 Strengthen the Enabling Environment, Increase Inclusivity and Correct Market Distortions
4.3.1 Strengthen the Enabling Environment
4.3.2 Increase Inclusivity
4.3.3 Correct Market Distortions
4.4 Stimulate the Pipeline of Investible Sustainable Projects
4.5 Explore New Financing Mechanisms and Tools
4.6 Stop Insuring Non-compliance and Develop Best Practices to Incentivise Sustainable Behaviour
4.7 Boost New Approaches to Insurance
5 Conclusions
About the Authors
Appendix A: Definitions of Sustainable Ocean Economy and Blue Economy
Appendix B: The MPA Financing Gap
Appendix C: The Types and Sources of Capital for Financing a SOE
Appendix D: Threats to the Ocean Economy
Environmental Impacts
Fishing and Capture of Marine Life
Marine Pollution
Climate Change
Marine Mining, Offshore Oil and Gas
Fish Farming
Coastal and Marine Tourism
Coastal Development
Ports and Shipping
Social Impacts
Ocean Grabbing/Blue-Washing
Perverse Economic Incentives
Global Markets
References
10: Critical Habitats and Biodiversity: Inventory, Thresholds and Governance
1 Overview
2 An Inventory of Marine Habitats and Biodiversity
2.1 Species
2.2 Habitats
3 Biodiversity Loss
3.1 Evaluating the Loss of Species
3.2 Invertebrates
3.3 Vertebrates
3.4 Drivers of Species Decline
3.5 Habitat Degradation and Its Drivers
3.6 Reducing the Provisioning of Ecosystem Services
4 Thresholds and Tipping Points
4.1 Changes in Marine Ecosystems
4.2 Quantifying Tipping Points
4.3 Fisheries Management Perspective
5 Monitoring
5.1 How Can We Effectively Monitor and Manage Biodiversity and Enjoy the Benefits of a Sustainable Blue Economy in a Changing World?
5.2 What Are the Technological Tools for Biodiversity Monitoring?
5.3 Overseeing the Monitoring of Biodiversity
6 Gaps and Challenges in Habitat Protection
6.1 How Much of Key Marine Habitats Are Protected?
6.2 Protection Gaps in EEZs
7 International Conventions and Agreements
7.1 Fisheries Governance, Sustainability and Impacts on Biodiversity
8 Opportunities for Action
8.1 Technology for Mapping
8.2 Addressing the Biodiversity Data Gap
8.3 Citizen Science and Education Programmes
8.4 Well-Enforced, Green-Listed, Fully Protected Marine Reserves
8.5 Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management
9 Limitations of the Paper and Conclusions
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributors
References
11: The Human Relationship with Our Ocean Planet
1 Highlights
2 Introduction
2.1 Conceptual Development
2.2 Methodology
3 Human Relationships with the Ocean and Their Contributions to Well-being
3.1 The Ocean Economy and Its Acceleration
3.2 Social Well-being and How the Ocean Contributes to It
3.3 Addressing Social Difference Within Maritime Societies: Towards a Diverse and Inclusive Future Ocean Economy
3.4 The Emergent Impact of COVID-19 on Human-Ocean Relationships
3.5 Avoiding ‘Taboo Trade-Offs’ and the Need for Inclusive Ocean Policymaking to Improve Human Well-being
4 Governing Humanity’s Relationships with the Ocean: Some National and Regional Perspectives
4.1 An Indigenous Perspective: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Peoples’ Connection to ‘Saltwater Country’
4.2 A ‘Big State’ Perspective: China’s ‘Ocean Dream’
4.3 Japan’s Satoumi System: A Socially Negotiated Institution for Sub-national Governance
4.4 Indonesia: Diverse Marine Ecosystems Support Diverse Maritime Cultures and Societies
4.5 South India: Sea Courts and Legal Pluralism
4.5.1 Kadakkodi: The Court of the Sea
4.5.2 Uur Panchayats and Legal Pluralism
4.6 African Maritime Economies: Historical Foundations and Contemporary Visions
4.6.1 West Africa and the Atlantic: The Yoruba Littoral
4.7 Island Communities’ Leadership in Governing the Ocean Locally and Globally
4.8 Maritime Examples of UNESCO’s ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage’ Designations
5 Opportunities for Action to Support Pluralistic and Inclusive Ocean Values
5.1 Synthesis and Conclusions
5.2 Opportunities for Action
5.2.1 Humanise the Ocean Narrative
Shifting Language and Frames of Reference
Broadening the Knowledge Base: Informing Blue Futures
5.2.2 Engage Key Constituencies in the Development of Future Ocean Visions and Planning Processes at National and International Levels
5.2.3 Create Policies and Mobilise Finance for Actions in Support of an Inclusive Ocean-Society Relationship
6 Conclusion
Annex 1. Social Well-being and Values of Sama-Bajau
Annex 2. The Arts and the Ocean
Annex 3. Sharks as Symbolic Animals
Annex 4. Flying Fish as Symbol of Barbadian Identity
Annex 5. The Use of UNESCO World Heritage Instruments to Support the Conservation of Plurality of Values Humans Derive from Interactions with the Ocean
Annex 6. Economic Activities of the Yoruba Coast
Commercial Activities in Coastal Yorubaland
Fishing and Other Economic Activities in Littoral Yorubaland: Focus on the Ilaje
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributing Authors
References
12: The Ocean Transition: What to Learn from System Transitions
1 Introduction
2 Current Governance Baseline
2.1 Ocean Governance
2.2 Coastal Governance
2.3 Shared Resource Governance
3 Sectoral Regime Dynamics and Stakeholders
3.1 Inter-regime Dynamics
4 Drivers of Change
4.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
4.2 Overfishing
4.3 Seabed and Land Use
4.4 Fragmented Governance
5 Niche Innovations
6 Transition Dynamics: Theories of Change
6.1 Knowledge for Transitions
6.2 Capacity and Incentives for Transitions
7 Framing Transitions: Regulatory Lessons
7.1 Reconfiguring Governance and Authority
7.1.1 Governance as Voluntary and Adaptive Learning
7.1.2 Interacting, Multiple Centres of Governance at Different Scales
7.1.3 Meta-governance
7.2 Empowering the Commons
7.2.1 Rights to the Commons
7.2.2 Knowledge Commons
7.3 Making Ownership Generative (Integrating Property Rights with Stewardship Commitment)
8 The Ocean in a Transformed World: Towards a Governance Framework
9 Conclusion and Opportunities for Action
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributing Authors
Appendix A. Governance
UNCLOS Implementation Agreement: Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction—Challenges and Opportunities
Case Study of Coastal Governance: Kosi Bay, South Africa
Governance Examples
Appendix B. Regimes
Appendix C. Case Studies of Niche Innovations
Integrated Ocean Management for Development Planning, Fisheries Management and Disaster Risk Management in Belize
Rights-Based Fisheries Management
Monitoring Innovations for Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fisheries
Justice in Marine Sustainability
Appendix D. Potential Governance Functions of a Supranational Ocean Agency
References
13: Towards Ocean Equity
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Context
1.3 Why Is Equity Important?
1.4 Equity in an Ocean Context
2 Key Findings
2.1 How Are Ocean Benefits and Harms Distributed?
2.2 Why Is Social Equity Important in a Sustainable Ocean Economy?
2.3 What Rules and Principles Exist to Support Equity?
2.3.1 Intergenerational Equity: Protection of the Marine Environment
2.3.2 Intragenerational Equity: Promoting Economic Equity
2.3.3 Human Rights
2.4 Case Studies of Hope and False Hope
2.4.1 Equity and Sustainable (Small-Scale) Fisheries
2.4.2 Gender-Transformative Approaches
2.4.3 Ocean-Based Infrastructure and Coastal Community Equality
2.4.4 Equity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction
2.4.5 Can corporate Actors Promote Equity?
2.5 Equity and Climate Change
2.6 Summary of Findings
3 Opportunities for Action
3.1 Safeguards: No Regrets
3.1.1 Consider the Social Context and Engage Diverse Actors in Decision-Making
3.1.2 Recognise the Rights and Needs of Women, Individuals with Disabilities, Small-Scale Fishers, Indigenous and Other Minority Groups
3.1.3 Protect Human Rights and the Rights of Indigenous Groups
3.1.4 Address Corruption and Tax Evasion
3.2 Mainstreaming Equity: Doing What’s Right
3.2.1 Recognise, Protect and Operationalise Equity and Access Rights
3.2.2 Build Local Capacity to Establish Equality of Opportunity
3.2.3 Understand Social-Ecological Causality, Assign Responsibility and Secure Equitable Distribution of Benefits
3.2.4 Demand, Require and Stimulate Responsible Business Practices
3.3 Transformative Approaches: The Bold Policies
3.3.1 Create a Shared Ocean Economy that Facilitates Redistribution of Wealth and Benefits
3.3.2 Democratise Ocean Knowledge
3.3.3 Create Inclusive Governance Processes at All Scales
3.3.4 Place Limits on Growth and Consider Degrowth Within the Capacity of the Biosphere
4 Conclusions
Appendix 1: Inequities Associated with Small-Scale Fisheries
Inequity of Benefits
Invisible Gendered Inequities
Inequity of Access
Decision-Making and Governance
Appendix 2: Voluntary Environmental Programs
About the Authors
Co-authors
Contributing Authors
References
14: Integrated Ocean Management
1 Introduction
2 The Concept of Integrated Ocean Management
2.1 The Global Ocean Governance Framework
3 The Implementation of Integrated Ocean Management
3.1 Components of Successful IOM
3.1.1 Institutional structures
3.1.2 Ocean and Coastal Data and Use Of Science
3.1.3 Engagement of Relevant User Groups
3.2 The Case of the ‘Collective Arrangement’: Toward IOM in Area-Based Management in Areas beyond National Jurisdiction
3.3 A Healthy, Productive and Resilient Ocean for Long-Term Economic Growth
4 Integrated Ocean Management in Practice
4.1 The Coral Triangle and the Seychelles
4.1.1 Conservation and the Case of Fisheries Management in the Coral Triangle
4.1.2 Climate Change Adaptation in the Seychelles
4.1.3 Challenges and Lessons Learned
4.2 The Norwegian Ocean Management Plans
4.2.1 Economic activity and ocean governance
4.2.2 Comprehensive management plans
4.2.3 Challenges and Lessons Learned
4.3 Approaches to Integrated Ocean Management in the United States
4.3.1 Northeast and Mid-Atlantic Regional Ocean Plans
4.3.2 Balancing Ecosystems and Economy with the Rhode Island Ocean Special Area Management Plan
4.3.3 Challenges and Lessons Learned
4.4 Integrated Coastal Management in Xiamen, China
4.4.1 Early Stages of ICM in Xiamen
4.4.2 Ecosystem Rehabilitation
4.4.3 Challenges and Lessons Learned
4.5 What Does Experience Teach Us about IOM Implementation?
5 Conclusions and Opportunities for Action
5.1 Opportunity for Action 1: Harness Science and Knowledge
5.2 Opportunity for Action 2: Establish Partnerships Between Public and Private Sectors
5.3 Opportunity for Action 3: Strengthen Stakeholder Engagement
5.4 Opportunity for Action 4: Improve Capacity Building
5.5 Opportunity for Action 5: Implement Regulatory Frameworks
5.6 Opportunity for Action 6: Develop Adaptive Solutions
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributing Authors
References
15: Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing and Associated Drivers
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Context
1.3 Economic Losses to States and Communities
1.4 Social and Environmental Costs
1.5 Crime and Human Rights Abuses
1.6 Possibility of Military Conflicts
1.7 Worsening the Effects of Climate Change
1.8 The International Situation
1.9 Significant Reports on IUU Fishing
1.10 Need for National Good Governance
1.11 Three Drivers of IUU Fishing
2 The Need to Combat IUU Fishing
2.1 Trends in the Global Fish Catch and Its Importance to Global Food Security
2.1.1 Estimated Global Fish Catch
2.1.2 Aquaculture Depends on Capture Fisheries
2.1.3 Fish Consumption Expands Beyond Population Growth
2.1.4 The Importance of Seafood for Nutrition and Food Security
2.2 The Scale of IUU Fishing
2.3 The Modus Operandi of IUU Fishing
2.3.1 Transshipment: Moving the Catch from Vessel to Vessel
2.3.2 Using Flags of Convenience and Flags of Non-compliance
2.3.3 Using Ports of Convenience
2.3.4 Deactivating Vessel Identification and Monitoring Systems
2.3.5 Ships Operated and Financed by a Complex Network of Ownership
2.3.6 Use of Fraudulent Documents and Vessel Identification
2.3.7 Poor Working Conditions and Safety Standards
2.4 IUU Fishing Invades Small-Scale and Artisanal Fisheries
3 The Impacts of IUU Fishing
3.1 Impacts on Biodiversity
3.2 Social and Economic Impacts
3.3 Climate Change and Fisheries Management
4 Reframing the Economic Incentives for IUU fishing
4.1 Understanding Economic Incentives for IUU Fishing
4.1.1 Too Much Fishing Capacity
4.2 Changing Economic Incentives
4.2.1 Transparent Supply Chains
4.2.2 Smart New Tracking Technologies
4.2.3 Consequences for Bad Behaviour
4.2.4 Corruption Can Undermine the Process
5 Overcoming Weak Governance
5.1 Governance Gaps
5.1.1 Governance Problems Persist
5.1.2 Regional Fisheries Management Organisations and High-Seas Governance
5.1.3 Lack of Universal Mechanism to Assess State Compliance
5.1.4 Gap Between Fisheries Management and Preventing Human Rights Abuses
5.2 Solutions to Weak Governance
5.2.1 Adopt the Port State Measures Agreement
5.2.2 Close the FOC Registry to Fishing Vessels
5.2.3 Create Strong Deterrents
5.2.4 Improve Transboundary Case Handling
5.2.5 Enhance Transparency in Fisheries
6 Ensuring Effective Enforcement
6.1 Barriers to Enforcement
6.2 Improving Enforcement
6.2.1 Build Capacity and Support
6.2.2 Establish Regional Information Sharing and Cooperation Mechanisms
6.2.3 Monitor Transshipments
6.2.4 Improve Monitoring of the Fishing Fleet
7 Three High-Level Decisive Opportunities for Action
7.1 Adopt Global Transparency in Fisheries
7.2 Ratify and Implement the FAO’s Port State Measures Agreement
7.3 Enhance Regional Cooperation
About the Authors
Co-authors
Contributing Authors
Appendix A: Instruments and Tools to Combat IUU Fishing
Binding International Instruments on IUU Fishing
Non-binding International Instruments on IUU Fishing
Data Sharing and Data Enabled Technology to Detect and Combat IUU Fishing
Date-Sharing Organisations
Data-Enabled Technology and Tools
Institutions, Organisations and Tribunals Governing the World’s Fisheries
Appendix B: Voluntary Actions for Ocean Fishery Stakeholders Under SDG 14.4
Strengthen Existing Ocean Governance Mechanisms
Flag State Actions and Responsibilities
Coastal State Actions and Responsibilities
Port State Actions and Responsibilities
Market State Actions and Opportunities
Legal Frameworks for Actions
Adopt Global Transparency Rules and Technology
Enhance International Cooperation
Domestic Fisheries Actions by Coastal States
Digital Documentation for All States
Actions for Business, Industry, Financial Institutions, Scientists and Civil Society
Civil Society Can Bring Communities Together for Collective Action
References
16: Organised Crime in the Fisheries Sector
1 Introduction
2 State of Knowledge
2.1 What Is Organised Crime?
2.1.1 Case Study 1: The Viking Case
2.1.2 Case Study 2: The Rock Lobster Case
2.2 Manifestations of Organised Crime in Fisheries
2.2.1 Fraud
2.2.2 Corruption
2.2.3 Tax Crime
2.2.4 Money Laundering
2.2.5 Crime in the Labour Market
2.2.6 Security Offences at Sea
2.2.7 Drug Trafficking
2.2.8 Smuggling, in Particular of Fuel
2.2.9 Migrant Smuggling
2.2.10 Fisheries Offences
2.3 The Impact of Organised Crime in Fisheries on the Sustainable Ocean Economy
2.3.1 Social Impacts
Peace and Security
Food Security
Criminality In Fishing Communities
2.3.2 Economic Impacts
Costs to Coastal States
Costs to the Legitimate Industry
2.3.3 Environmental Impacts
Impact on Fish Stocks
2.4 Addressing Organised Crime in Fisheries
2.4.1 Challenges
Impact on the Marine Environment
2.4.2 Promising Practices
National-Level Inter-Agency Cooperation
Regional and Global Cross-Border Cooperation
Law Reform
Capacity-Building and Skills Training in Criminal Justice Systems
Awareness-Raising
3 Concluding Thoughts
4 Opportunities for Action
4.1 Stage One: Develop a Common Understanding of Transnational Organised Crime in Fisheries
4.2 Stage Two: Develop Practical Tools to Strengthen Law Enforcement Capacity to Address Organised Crime in the Fisheries Sector
Appendix A
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributing Authors
References
Court Case
Conventions
17: The Ocean as a Solution to Climate Change: Five Opportunities for Action
1 Executive Summary
1.1 Climate Change Threatens the Ocean
1.2 The Ocean is a Major Part of the Climate Solution
1.3 Ocean-Based Mitigation Options
1.4 Wider Impacts of Ocean-based Climate Action
1.5 Delivering the Mitigation Potential of the Ocean
2 Introduction
2.1 Climate Change Is a Key Threat to Ocean Systems
2.2 The Ocean Is Part of the Solution to Climate Change
2.3 Methodology
2.3.1 Underlying Assumptions and Approach
2.3.2 Determining the Contribution of Ocean-Based Climate Action to Closing the Emissions Mitigation Gap
3 Ocean-Based Renewable Energy
3.1 Mitigation Potential
3.2 Methodology
3.3 Policy Interventions Needed to Realise Mitigation Potential
3.4 Technology Needs
3.5 Priority Areas for Further Research
4 Ocean-Based Transport
4.1 Mitigation Potential
4.2 Methodology
4.3 Policy Interventions Required to Realise Mitigation Potential
4.4 International Maritime Organization Strategy for GHG Reduction
4.4.1 National Government Actions
4.4.2 Private Sector Actions
4.5 Technology Needs
4.6 Priority Areas for Further Research
5 Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
5.1 Mitigation Potential
5.2 Methodology
5.3 Policy Interventions Needed to Achieve Mitigation Potential
5.4 Technology Needs
5.5 Priority Areas for Further Research
6 Fisheries, Aquaculture, and Shifting Diets
6.1 Mitigation Potential
6.1.1 Reducing Emissions from Wild Capture Fisheries
6.1.2 Reducing Emissions from Aquaculture
6.1.3 Reducing Emissions by Shifting Diets
6.2 Methodology
6.2.1 Wild Capture Fisheries
Reducing Emissions by Improving Fish Catch Efficiency
Reducing Emissions by Increasing Fishery Yields
6.2.2 Aquaculture
6.2.3 Dietary Shifts to Ocean Proteins
6.3 Policy Interventions Required to Achieve Mitigation Potential
6.4 Technology Needs
6.5 Priority Areas for Further Research
7 Carbon Storage in the Seabed
7.1 Mitigation Potential
7.2 Methodology
7.3 Policy Interventions Needed to Achieve Mitigation Potential
7.4 Technology Needs
7.5 Priority Areas for Further Research
8 Wider Impacts of Ocean-based Actions
8.1 Methodology
8.2 General Findings of the Wider-Impacts Analysis
8.3 Detailed Findings of the Wider-Impact Analysis
8.3.1 Ocean-Based Renewable Energy
Effective Marine Spatial Planning, in Combination with Emerging Ocean Energy Technologies, will Be Effective in Mitigating Biodiversity Loss from Ocean Energy Technologies and Reinforcing Biodiversity Cobenefits (High Confidence)
Ocean-Based Renewables will have a Positive Impact on Reducing Water Use Compared to Fossil Fuel–Based Technologies (Medium Confidence)
Replacing Fossil Fuels with Ocean-Based Renewable Energy Contributes to Positive Health Outcomes (Medium Confidence)
Expansion of Ocean-Based Renewable Energy has the Potential to Promote Gender Equity (Low Confidence)
Expansion of Ocean-Based Renewable Energy Leads to Job Creation and Economic Growth (High Confidence)
Opportunities for Innovation Are Expected to Emerge with Expansion of Clean Ocean Energy, Promoting Scientific Research and Resulting in Upgraded Technological Capabilities (High Confidence)
8.3.2 Ocean-Based Transport
Reducing Emissions from Shipping Vessels will Help Mitigate Ocean Acidification (Medium Confidence)
Cleaner Marine Shipping Fuels will Reinforce Positive Human Health Outcomes (High Confidence)
Mitigation Options to Reduce Emissions from Shipping Can Encourage Innovation and Upgrade the Technological Capabilities of the Sector (High Confidence)
Reducing Emissions from Shipping Could Potentially Have a Marginal Impact on the Price of Internationally Traded Commodities (Medium Confidence)
8.3.3 Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
Vegetated Coastal and Habitats (Blue Carbon Ecosystems) Contribute to Climate Change Adaptation by Increasing Coastal Resilience and Reducing the Impact of Sea Level Rise (Very High Confidence)
Vegetated Coastal Habitats Offer High Biodiversity Benefits to Terrestrial and Marine Ecosystems, Including Fisheries (Very High Confidence)
Integration of Social and Gender Considerations into Restoration Policy for Vegetated Coastal Habitats Can Promote Gender Equity and Educational Opportunities (Medium Confidence)
Restoring and Protecting Vegetated Coastal Habitats has the Potential to Create Jobs, Promote Economic Growth, and Enhance Research: Involvement of Small-Scale Fishers and Local Stakeholders Throughout the Decision-Making Process Is Crucial to Ensure D
Seaweed Farming has Low Levels of Environmental Risks Identified for Small-Scale Cultivation Projects (High Confidence)
Seaweed Production Can Lead to Job Creation, Economic Growth, and Enhanced Research (Medium Confidence): It Has a Potential Role in Providing Affordable Energy (Low Confidence)
Seaweed Farming and Restoring Wetlands Strengthen Capacity to Meet Food Security Targets (Medium Confidence): Healthy Mangroves Positively Impact Health Outcomes for Coastal Communities Through Provision of Food and Medicine to Local Residents (Medium
Mitigation Options to Rebuild Ocean Biomass Can Contribute to Poverty Reduction (Low Confidence)
Mitigation Options to Rebuild Ocean Biomass Can Also Negatively Impact Poverty Reduction and Employment Targets, and Can Limit Progress on Food Security Targets (Low Confidence)
8.3.4 Fisheries, Aquaculture, and Dietary Shifts
Aquaculture Can Present Numerous Societal and Environmental Challenges: Unplanned Aquaculture Expansion in Some Regions Has Negatively Impacted Other Coastal and Terrestrial Ecosystems (High Confidence)
Improvement in Feed Conversion Ratio and Use of Plant-Based Ingredients in Aquaculture Feed Rather Than Animal By-Products to Meet The Demand of the Rapidly Growing Marine Aquaculture Sector Can Potentially Reduce Water Use (Medium Confidence)
Reducing High Levels of Meat Consumption Among Some Populations and Substituting by Balanced Ocean-Based Protein Has Positive Human Health Benefits: The Overall Impact Depends on Whether Ocean-Based Protein Is Sourced from Sustainable Production Source
Mitigation Options Related to Increasing Ocean-Based Protein in Diets and Reducing Emissions in Fisheries and Aquaculture Would Result in Job Creation and Savings for Households, and Encourage Technological Innovation (High Confidence)
8.3.5 Storing Carbon in the Seabed
There Are Large Uncertainties Regarding the Environmental Implications of Carbon Storage Options in the Ocean (High Confidence)
Offshore Investments in Seabed Storage Can Lead to Job Creation, Economic Growth, and Innovation (Low Confidence)
9 Conclusion
About the Authors
Convening Lead Author
Expert Authors
References
18: A Sustainable Ocean Economy for 2050: Approximating Its Benefits and Costs
1 Executive Summary
2 Key Findings
3 Introduction
3.1 Scope of the Analysis
4 Methodology
4.1 BAU and Sustainable Transformation Pathway Scenarios for 2050
4.2 Framework for Assessing Benefits
4.2.1 Health Benefits
4.2.2 Environmental and Ecological Benefits
4.2.3 Economic and Social Benefits
4.3 Framework for Assessing Costs
5 Assessing the Return on Investment for Four Sustainable Ocean Transformations: Scenarios, Assumptions, Methodology, Results
5.1 Conserve and Restore Mangroves
5.1.1 Baseline, Sustainable Transformation Pathway and Target Scenarios
5.1.2 The BAU Scenario
5.1.3 The Sustainable Transformation Pathway Scenario
5.1.4 Assessment of Costs
Conservation Costs
Restoration Costs
Assessment of Benefits
5.2 Health Benefits
5.3 Environmental Benefits
5.3.1 Protection from Storm Surges
5.3.2 Mitigation of Climate Change and Carbon Sequestration Benefits
5.3.3 Other Ecosystem Services
5.4 Economic and Social Benefits
5.4.1 Commercial Fisheries
5.4.2 Tourism
5.4.3 Estimated Benefits and Costs
B-C Ratio Using Present Value Approach
B-C Ratio for a Hectare of Mangrove Restored/Conserved
5.4.4 Data Limitations and Caveats
5.5 Scale Up Offshore Wind Energy Production
5.5.1 Baseline, Sustainable Transformation Pathway and Target Scenarios
5.5.2 Assessment of Costs
Offshore Wind Energy Generation Costs
5.5.3 Offshore Wind System Integration Costs
5.5.4 Baseline Energy Generation Costs
6 Additional Costs of Energy Generation from Offshore Wind
6.1 Assessment of Benefits
6.1.1 Health Benefits
6.1.2 Environmental and Ecological Benefits
Water Consumption Impacts
Climate Impacts
Impacts on Biodiversity
6.1.3 Economic and Social Benefits
6.2 Estimated Benefits and Costs
6.2.1 B-C Ratio Using Present Value Approach
6.2.2 B-C Ratio for a Unit of Energy Generation and Transmission
Data Limitations and Caveats
6.3 Decarbonise the International Shipping Sector
6.3.1 Baseline, Sustainable Transformation Pathway and Target Scenarios
6.3.2 Assessment of Costs
6.3.3 Assessment of Benefits
Health Benefits
Environmental and Ecological Benefits
Economic and Social Benefits
Estimated Benefits and Costs
6.3.4 Data Limitations and Caveats
6.4 Increase the Production of Sustainably Sourced Ocean-Based Proteins
6.4.1 Baseline, Sustainable Transformation Pathway and Target Scenarios
6.4.2 Assessment of Costs
Capture Fisheries Reform
Nonfed and Fed Mariculture Production
6.4.3 Assessment of Benefits
Health Benefits
Environmental and Ecological Benefits
6.4.4 Economic and Social Benefits
Estimated Benefits and Costs
Data Limitations and Caveats
7 Conclusion
Appendix 1. Conservation and Restoration of Mangrove Habitats
Increasing Ecosystem Services from Mangrove Conservation and Restoration
Data Limitations and Caveats
8 Appendix 2. Scaling Up Offshore Wind Energy Production
Data Limitations and Caveats
Appendix 3. Decarbonising International Shipping
Estimating the Avoided Costs of Childhood Asthma
Data Limitations and Caveats
Appendix 4. Increasing the Production of Sustainably Sourced Ocean-Based Proteins
Data Limitations and Caveats
About the Authors
About WRI
Our Challenge
Our Vision
Our Approach
Count It
Change It
Scale It
References
19: A Sustainable and Equitable Blue Recovery to the COVID-19 Crisis
1 Introduction
1.1 Context
1.2 About This Report
1.2.1 Scope
1.2.2 Approach
2 Emerging Impacts and Early Responses
2.1 Emerging Impacts on the Ocean Economy
2.1.1 Economic Impact
2.1.2 Social Impact
2.1.3 Environmental Impact
2.2 Emerging Responses
2.2.1 National Governments
Rapid Emergency Response
Long-Term Recovery Response Measures
Development Banks and Bilateral Development Aid
International Organisations and Non-Governmental Organisations
Private Investment
2.3 Gap Between Impacts and Response
3 Roadmap for a Sustainable and Equitable Blue Recovery
3.1 Proposed Principles for a Sustainable and Equitable Blue Recovery
3.2 Five Priority Opportunities for a Blue Stimulus
3.2.1 One: Invest in Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Restoration and Protection
Why Investment Makes Sense
How These Benefits Can Be Achieved: Short-Term Interventions That Can Be Initiated Now as Part of Stimulus Spending and Recovery Measures
3.2.2 Two: Invest in Sewerage and Wastewater Infrastructure for Coastal Communities
Why Investment Makes Sense
How These Benefits Can Be Achieved: Short-Term Interventions That Can Be Initiated Now as Part of Stimulus Spending and Recovery Measures
3.2.3 Three: Invest in Sustainable Community-Led Non-Fed Mariculture
Why Investment Makes Sense
How These Benefits Can Be Achieved: Short-Term Interventions That Can Be Initiated Now as Part of Stimulus Spending and Recovery Measures
3.2.4 Four: Incentivise Zero-Emission Marine Transport
Why Investment Makes Sense
How These Benefits Can Be Achieved: Short- Term Interventions That Can Be Initiated Now as Part of Stimulus Spending and Recovery Measures
3.2.5 Five: Incentivise Sustainable Ocean-Based Renewable Energy
What Investment Will Achieve
Why Investment Makes Sense
How These Benefits Can Be Achieved: Short-Term Interventions That Can Be Initiated Now as Part of Stimulus Spending and Recovery Measures
3.3 Additional Opportunities for a Blue Transformation
3.4 Opportunities for Blue Conditionality to Avoid Roll-Backs in Progress
3.4.1 Sustainable Fisheries Management Through Digitisation
3.4.2 Improved Transparency and Decision-Making Through Ocean Data
4 Conclusion
Annex 1
Annex 2
About the Authors
References
20: Ocean Solutions That Benefit People, Nature and the Economy
1 How to Use This Report
2 Executive Summary: The New Ocean Narrative
2.1 The Health, Wealth and Well-Being of the World and Its People Depend on the Ocean
2.2 Its Potential Is Enormous, But the Ocean Is in Trouble
2.3 A New Relationship with the Ocean Is Needed: One That Creates a Healthy Ocean and a Sustainable Ocean Economy
2.3.1 Protect Effectively
A Sustainable Ocean Economy Would Help Protect the Ocean by Reducing the Carbon Dioxide Emissions That Are Threatening It
Protecting Coastal Habitats and the Ocean’s Biodiversity Would Help the Ocean Continue to Provide the Ecosystem Services Humanity Depends on
Protecting the Ocean from Pollution Could Catalyse Deeper Reform of Contaminating, Wasteful Material Management Practices on Land
2.3.2 Produce Sustainably
The Volume of Food Production from the Ocean Could Soar, Helping Increase Food Security for Almost Ten Billion People in 2050
The Ocean Can Provide a Virtually Limitless Supply of Clean, Renewable Energy
Investments in the Ocean Are Highly Cost-Effective
2.3.3 Prosper Equitably
A Sustainable Ocean Economy Would Create New and Better Jobs
The New Agenda Would Empower Local Fishers
International Collaboration and Transparent Supply Chains Could Significantly Reduce Maritime Crime
Acting Sustainably Would Help Preserve the Cultural Importance of the Ocean
2.3.4 The Ocean Should Be a Key Part of the Massive Global Economic Recovery from the COVID-19 Contraction
2.4 The Challenges Are Great, But a Pragmatic Action Agenda Offers Solutions to Meet Them
2.4.1 Maintaining a Healthy Ocean Will Require Action on Many Fronts and Across Multiple Sectors
Using Data to Drive Decision-Making
Engaging in Goal-Oriented Ocean Planning
De-risking Finance and Using Innovation to Mobilise Investment
Stopping Land-Based Pollution
Changing Ocean Accounting So That It Reflects the True Value of the Ocean
2.4.2 This New Way of Thinking About and Managing the Ocean Is Gaining Traction
2.4.3 Targeted Actions Can Help Accelerate Progress
Sustainable Ocean Economic Zones Can Illustrate the Benefits of a Sustainable Ocean Economy at a Small Scale
National Ocean Task Forces Can Accelerate the Shift Towards a Sustainable Ocean Economy
2.5 The Ocean Is Not Too Big to Fail, and It Is Not Too Big to Fix, But It Is Too Big and Too Central to the Planet’s Future to Ignore
3 Prologue: Five Sustainable Ocean Economy Stories
3.1 Stop 1: Mikoko Pamoja, Kenya
3.2 Stop 2: Community-Based Managed Access Network in the Philippines
3.3 Stop 3: Medes Islands Marine Reserve, Spain
3.4 Stop 4: GreenWave, United States
3.5 Stop 5: ZEEDS Project, North Sea
4 The Urgency of Today
4.1 Introduction
4.2 A Blue Awakening: Recognising That the Ocean Is Vital to Humankind and the Global Economy
4.2.1 The Ocean’s Contributions to Humanity Exceed the Realm of Its Industrial Production
4.2.2 The Ocean Has a Central Role to Play in Global Food Security, But the Way the Ocean Is Currently Used Is Not on Track to Deliver It
4.2.3 Ocean-Based Solutions Are Underappreciated and Essential to Fight Climate Change
4.2.4 The Ocean Can Catalyse a Global Transition Towards More Circular and Regenerative Practices in Land-Based Economies
4.3 Failing the Environment and the People: The Need for Urgent Action
4.3.1 Indirect Effects Can Already Be Observed
4.3.2 The Decline of Ocean Health Is Threatening Most Ocean Sectors
4.3.3 The Risk to Coastal Communities Is Increasing
4.3.4 Ocean Activities Are Currently Not Delivering on the Social Sustainable Development Goals
4.4 Embracing Hope: The Building Momentum for a Sustainable Ocean Economy
4.4.1 Hopeful and Promising Sectorial Trends and Innovations
4.4.2 Structural Changes Across Ocean Economy Sectors
5 The Possibility of Tomorrow
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Defining a Compass Direction: Principles for a Sustainable Ocean Economy
5.3 A New Picture Is Emerging: The 2050 Sustainable Ocean Economy
5.3.1 Sustainable Ocean Food Production
5.3.2 Clean Ocean Energy
5.3.3 Low-Carbon Transportation and Ports
5.3.4 Ocean Restoration and Protection
5.3.5 Tourism
5.3.6 Other Sectors
5.4 The Big Reconciliation: Protect Effectively, Produce Sustainably and Prosper Equitably
5.4.1 Protect Effectively
5.4.2 Produce Sustainably
5.4.3 Prosper Equitably
6 A Roadmap to a Sustainable Ocean Economy
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Harnessing Complex Adaptive Systems: Lessons for the Sea
6.2.1 Major Barriers to a Sustainable Ocean Economy
6.2.2 To Move the System, It Is Important to Learn from Other System Transitions
6.3 Charting a Direction: The Ocean Action Agenda
6.3.1 Five Cross-Cutting Enablers for a Sustainable Ocean Economy
Data Reform: How Could the Data Revolution—Enabled by New Technologies—Change the Way Informed Decisions in the Ocean Realm Are Made?
Why Is It Important?
What Is Preventing (Faster) Change?
What Are the Opportunities for Action to Overcome These Barriers?
Goal-Oriented Ocean Planning: Why Does Ocean Planning Matter So Much, Why Is It Not Mainstreamed Yet and How Can It Be Generalised?
Why Is It Important?
What Is Preventing (Faster) Change?
What Are the Opportunities for Action to Overcome These Barriers?
Innovative Finance and De-risking: Why Is Finance Pivotal, and How Can More Money Be Mobilised Towards a Sustainable Ocean Economy?
Why Is It Important?
What Is Preventing (Faster) Change?
What Are the Opportunities for Action to Overcome These Barriers?
Stopping Land-Based Pollution: How Does the Current Political and Economic Constellation Make It Nearly Impossible to Stop Ocean Pollution? How Could This Be Changed, and Where Do We Start?
Why Is It Important?
What Is Preventing (Faster) Change?
What Are the Opportunities for Action to Overcome These Barriers?
Upgrading Ocean Accounting: How Do Current Metrics and Public Accounting Conventions (Gross Value Added, Gross Domestic Product) Drive the Wrong Priorities, What Can Be Changed, and How Can We Start the Change Today?
Why Is It Important?
What Is Preventing (Faster) Change?
What Are the Opportunities for Action to Overcome These Barriers?
6.3.2 Five Key Sectors to Be Transformed Towards a Sustainable Ocean Economy
Sustainable Food from the Ocean: How Can Sustainable Ocean Fishing and Farming Feed a Planet with Ten Billion People?
Why Is It Important?
What Are the Opportunities for Action to Accelerate Change?
Clean Ocean Energy: How Can the Ocean Deliver Much More Zero-Carbon Energy in a Sustainable Way?
Why Is It Important?
What Are the Opportunities for Action to Accelerate Change?
Low-Carbon Transportation and Ports: How Can a Traditional Industry Embrace Sustainability?
Why Is It Important?
What Are the Opportunities for Action to Accelerate Change?
Ocean Restoration and Protection: How Can Protected Areas Be Mainstreamed and Enforced?
Why Is It Important?
What Are the Opportunities to Accelerate Change?
Tourism: How Can Tourism Be Turned into a Zero- or Positive-Impact Industry?
Why Is It Important?
What Are the Opportunities to Accelerate Change?
6.4 Launching the Voyage: Three Levels for Possible Immediate Action
6.4.1 Local Intervention: Catalysing Change Through Sustainable Ocean Economic Zones
6.4.2 National Intervention: Getting Things Done with National Ocean Task Forces
6.4.3 International Intervention: Raising the Bar
7 Conclusion
About the Authors
Lead Authors
Contributing Authors
Appendix: The High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy’s Products Used in Each Respective Report Section
21: Transformations for a Sustainable Ocean Economy: A Vision for Protection, Production and Prosperity
1 Our Call to Action
2 A 100% Approach
2.1 Getting to 100%
3 Ocean Wealth
3.1 Sustainable Ocean Food
3.2 Sustainable Ocean Energy
3.3 Sustainable Ocean-Based Tourism
3.4 Sustainable Ocean Transport
4 Sustainable New Ocean Industries
4.1 A Precautionary Approach to Seabed Mining
5 Ocean Health
5.1 Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
5.2 Protect and Restore Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
5.3 Reduce Ocean Pollution
6 Ocean Equity
6.1 Promote Equal Opportunity for People to Benefit from the Ocean
7 Ocean Knowledge
7.1 Build Ocean Literacy and Skills
7.2 Account for the Value of the Ocean
7.3 Harness Ocean Science, Technology and Data
8 Ocean Finance
