Sustainable Utilization of Carbon Dioxide in Waste Management: Moving toward reducing environmental impact

Front Cover
Sustainable Utilization of Carbon Dioxide in Waste Management
Sustainable Utilization of Carbon Dioxide in Waste Management: Moving toward reducing environmental impact
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
About the authors
Preface
1 - Emerging carbon-based waste management sustainable practices
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Waste management principles and approaches
1.2.1 Waste management hierarchy
1.2.2 Emerging approaches in waste management
1.2.2.1 Zero waste
1.2.2.2 Design for the environment
1.2.2.3 Sustainable materials management
1.2.2.4 Circular economy
1.2.2.5 End-of-waste
1.3 Circular economy (CE)
1.3.1 CE definitions
1.3.2 CE-based legislation
1.3.3 CE drivers, challenges, inhibitors, and enablers
1.3.4 CE and sustainable development
1.3.5 CE monitoring indicators
1.3.6 Carbon reprocessing
1.4 End-of-waste criteria
1.4.1 Regulatory standing of EoW criteria
1.4.1.1 EU Waste Framework Directive
1.4.1.2 The evolution from waste regulation to product regulation
1.4.1.2.1 Construction products directive/regulation
1.4.1.2.2 REACH Regulation
1.4.1.2.3 Assignment of primary water criteria
1.4.1.2.4 Utilization of inert waste criteria
1.4.1.2.5 Use of reprocessed aggregates in unbound and bound applications
1.4.2 Development of EoW leaching limit values
1.4.3 Guiding principles for establishing EoW criteria
1.4.3.1 Criteria for input material stream
1.4.3.2 Criteria for processing stream
1.4.3.3 Criteria for product quality stream
1.4.3.4 Criteria for potential applications stream
1.4.3.5 Criteria for quality control stream
1.4.4 Impact assessment
1.4.4.1 Environment, health and safety (EHS) impacts
1.4.4.2 Economic impact assessment
1.4.4.3 Market impact assessment
1.4.4.4 Regulation impact assessment
1.4.4.5 Other socio-economic impacts
1.4.5 Drafting possible EoW criteria proposals
1.4.5.1 Initial investigation
1.4.5.2 Assessment
1.4.5.3 Drafting of the EoW criteria
1.4.5.4 Assessment of potential impact
1.4.5.5 Preparation of final technical report
1.5 Case study 1: development of EoW criteria for construction and demolition reprocessed waste aggregates
1.5.1 Material analysis: sources, uses, and treatment
1.5.2 Quality assurance
1.5.3 Environmental impact
1.5.4 Related regulations
1.5.5 Market evaluation
1.5.6 Public perception or consumer acceptance
1.5.7 EoW criteria for C&D waste
1.6 Case study 2: development of EoW criteria for secondary aggregates from industrial processes
1.6.1 Analysis of coal combustion residues (CCR)
1.6.1.1 Types of CCR
1.6.1.1.1 Fly ash
1.6.1.1.2 Bottom ash
1.6.1.1.3 Boiler slag
1.6.1.2 Quantity of CCR
1.6.1.3 Use of CCR
1.6.1.4 Legislation for use of CCR
1.6.1.5 Environmental risks of CCR
1.6.2 Analysis of iron and steel slags production residues (ISSPR)
1.6.2.1 Types of ISSPR
1.6.2.1.1 Blast furnace slag (BFS)
1.6.2.1.2 Steel slags
1.6.2.2 Quantity of ISSPR
1.6.2.2.1 Use of ISSPR
1.6.2.3 Environmental risks of ISSPR
1.6.3 EoW criteria for reprocessed aggregates derived from ISSPR
1.7 Case study 3: development of EoW criteria for carbon capture and utilization (CCU) products
1.7.1 Input materials of CCU-based products
1.7.2 Production
1.7.3 Economic assessment
1.7.4 Marketing of CCU products
1.7.5 EoW criteria for CCU products
1.8 Summary and concluding remarks
References
2 - Carbon capture and utilization
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Carbon capture
2.3 Carbon capture cost
2.4 Carbon dioxide transport
2.5 Carbon storage (CS) technologies
2.6 Carbon utilization (CU) technologies
2.6.1 CU utilization options
2.6.1.1 Direct CO2 utilizations
2.6.1.2 CO2 utilizations for material production
2.6.1.2.1 Solvents
2.6.1.2.2 Chemicals
2.6.1.2.3 Fertilizers
2.6.1.2.4 Plastics
2.6.1.2.5 Mineralization
2.6.1.2.6 Geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide
2.6.1.2.7 Ocean carbon dioxide sequestration
2.6.1.3 CO2 utilization as an energy source
2.7 Global CO2 utilization projects
2.8 Carbon capture and utilization economic evaluation
2.9 Carbon binding capacity in carbon-based products
2.10 Market potential of carbon-based products
2.11 Policies and regulations to support carbon capture, storage, and utilizations
2.11.1 The European Union's current regulatory framework
2.11.1.1 Climate and energy policy framework
2.11.1.2 Waste and circular economy policy framework
2.11.1.3 Products and labeling policy framework
2.11.1.4 Environmental pollution policy framework
2.11.1.5 Environmental risk policy framework
2.11.1.6 Environmental impact assessment policy framework
2.11.1.7 Financing programs and instruments for CCU routes
2.11.2 CCU regulatory challenges and developments
2.11.2.1 Geologic storage of carbon dioxide directive
2.11.2.2 Energy efficiency directive
2.11.2.3 Monitoring and reporting regulation
2.11.3 GHG accountability
2.11.4 Barriers to the development of CCU
2.11.5 EU action plan for a circular economy
2.12 Summary and concluding remarks
References
3 - Assessment of carbon dioxide utilization technologies
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Technical and economic assessment
3.2.1 Goals of the technical and economic assessment
3.2.2 Scope of the study
3.2.2.1 CCU product systems, elements, and boundaries
3.2.2.2 Benchmark systems for CCU products
3.2.2.3 Assessment indicators for CCU products
3.2.3 Inventory/record
3.2.4 Indicators/indices
3.2.5 Interpretation/explanation
3.2.6 Reporting
3.3 Life-cycle assessment
3.3.1 Goal of the study
3.3.2 Scope of the study
3.3.2.1 Product system, functional unit, and reference flow
3.3.2.2 Identification of the boundaries of the system
3.3.2.3 Inventory modeling and multi-functionality
3.3.2.4 Data quality
3.3.3 Life-cycle inventory
3.3.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
3.3.4.1 Effect of decarbonization degree
3.3.4.2 Effect of power generation type
3.3.4.3 Effect of carbon capture and mineral carbonation
3.3.4.4 Effect of carbon storage technology
3.3.4.5 Effect of carbonation processes
3.3.4.6 Effect of multi-functionality treatment
3.3.4.7 Carbon capture and utilization for enhanced oil recovery
3.3.5 Life cycle sensitivity analysis
3.3.6 Life cycle interpretation and reporting
3.4 Summary and concluding remarks
References
4 - Carbonation reaction kinetics
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Chemical reactions
4.2.1 Solids
4.2.2 Carbonation of alkaline solid waste
4.3 Reaction models
4.3.1 Shrinking core model
4.3.2 Progressive-conversion model
4.3.3 Particle-pellet model
4.4 Unreacted core shrinking model for spherical particles
4.4.1 Theoretical development
4.4.2 Determination of the rate-controlling step
4.4.3 Kinetic expressions for diffusion-limited reactions
4.4.3.1 Parabolic law
4.4.3.2 Linear and logarithmic laws
4.4.3.3 Holt-Cutler-Wadsworth's equation
4.4.3.4 Jander's equation
4.4.3.5 Ginstling-Brounshtein's equation
4.4.3.6 Carter's equation
4.4.3.7 Dunwal-Wagner's equation
4.4.3.8 Komatsu-Uemura's equation
4.5 Grain model
4.6 Other approaches
4.7 Summary and concluding remarks
References
5 - Mineral carbonation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Carbonation of alkaline materials
5.2.1 Natural carbonation
5.2.2 Accelerated carbonation
5.2.2.1 Direct carbonation
5.2.2.2 Indirect carbonation
5.2.3 Alkaline wastes as adsorbents
5.3 Principles of accelerated carbonation reaction
5.3.1 Process chemistry
5.3.2 Ion equilibrium in solution
5.3.3 Carbonate precipitation
5.3.4 Formation of solid carbonates
5.3.5 Calcite crystal growth
5.3.6 Hydro-magnesite crystal growth
5.3.7 Thermodynamic stability
5.3.8 Solid state reaction kinetics
5.4 Controlling parameters
5.4.1 Surface activation
5.4.2 Dissolution
5.4.3 Carbon dioxide concentration
5.4.4 Reaction temperature
5.4.5 Solution pH
5.4.6 Liquid-to-solid ratio
5.4.7 Formation of passivating product layer
5.4.8 Nature of the product
5.5 Useful carbonated products
5.5.1 Calcium-based carbonates
5.5.2 Magnesium-based carbonates
5.6 Utilization of carbonated products
5.7 Life cycle assessment (LCA)
5.8 Summary and concluding remarks
References
6 - Carbonation technologies
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Technology readiness
6.3 Direct gas-solid carbonation
6.4 Single step aqueous processes
6.5 Multistep aqueous processes
6.5.1 Technologies for natural serpentine carbonation
6.5.1.1 The Nottingham University (NU) process (TRL3)
6.5.1.2 The Åbo Akademi (AA) process (TRL3)
6.5.1.3 The shell process (TRL7)
6.5.1.4 The US National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) process
6.5.2 Technologies for alkaline waste carbonation
6.5.2.1 The High Gravity Carbonation (HiGCarb) process (TRL3)
6.5.2.2 Mohamed and El-Gamal's fluidization (MGF) process (TRL6)
6.5.2.2.1 FBR principles
6.5.2.2.2 FBR reactor
6.5.2.2.3 Alkaline solid waste carbonation
6.5.2.2.4 MGF process advantages
6.6 Case studies for the use of the MGF process: I. cement kiln dust (CKD)
6.7 Case studies for the use of MGF process: II. steel slag
6.7.1 Hydration process
6.7.2 Carbonation process
6.7.3 Extent of carbonation
6.7.3.1 Thermal analysis
6.7.3.2 Mineralogical composition
6.7.3.3 Microstructure
6.7.3.4 Leaching
6.7.3.5 Carbon uptake and degree of carbonation
6.8 Case studies for the use of MGF processes: III. production of sewerage pipes
6.8.1 Modified sulfur concrete
6.8.2 Sulfur modification
6.8.3 Production of sulfur concrete
6.8.4 Balanced mix design
6.8.5 Durability of MSC
6.9 Case studies for the use of MGF process: IV. technology demonstration in underground sewerage environment
6.9.1 Material composition
6.9.2 Field testing conditions
6.9.3 Environmental impact
6.9.3.1 Temperature and gases
6.9.3.2 Physicochemical properties
6.9.3.3 Durability
6.10 Case studies for the use of MGF process: V. technology demonstration in saline and variable acidic environments
6.10.1 Strength development
6.10.2 Structural changes
6.10.3 Influence of aqueous environment on strength
6.10.4 Leachability
6.11 Summary and concluding remarks
References
7 - Laboratory carbonation methods: testing and evaluation
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Experimental methods
7.2.1 Fluidized bed reactor
7.2.1.1 FBR principles
7.2.1.2 FBR reactor
7.2.1.3 Integrated carbonation system
7.2.1.4 Operational conditions
7.2.1.5 Optimum operational flow rate
7.2.1.6 Carbonation time
7.2.1.7 Total amount of CO2 captured/consumed
7.2.1.8 Intensification of the carbonation process
7.2.1.9 Advantages
7.2.2 Spouted bed reactor
7.2.3 High gravity rotating packed bed
7.2.4 Ultrasound method
7.2.4.1 Acoustic vibrations
7.2.4.2 Effect of ultrasound on liquid-phase systems
7.2.4.3 Cavitation characteristics
7.2.4.4 Controlling parameters
7.2.4.4.1 Ultrasound power and frequency
7.2.4.4.2 Physical properties of the liquid
7.2.4.4.3 Presence of dissolved gases and purity of reaction system
7.2.4.4.4 Temperature
7.2.4.4.5 External pressure
7.2.4.5 Sono-chemical reactions in aqueous media
7.2.4.6 Solid-phase sono-chemical processes
7.2.4.7 Ultrasound carbonation
7.2.5 Autoclave carbonation
7.2.6 Calcium looping
7.3 CO2 experimental uptake
7.3.1 Mass gain method
7.3.2 Mass curve method
7.3.3 Gas analyzer method
7.3.4 Coulometric titration method
7.3.5 Pressure drop method
7.3.6 Thermogravimetric (TG) analysis
7.4 Carbonation efficiency and ratio
7.4.1 Theoretical uptake
7.4.2 Sequestration efficiency
7.4.3 Sequestration ratio
7.5 Summary and concluding remarks
References
8 - Carbonation of fly ash
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Classification of fly ash
8.3 Sources of fly ash
8.3.1 Coal fly ash
8.3.2 Municipal solid waste incineration ash
8.3.3 Modern flay ash
8.4 Fly ash utilizations
8.4.1 Neutralization/treatment agent
8.4.2 SO2 capture
8.4.3 CO2 sequestration
8.4.4 Soil stabilization
8.4.5 Cement production or cement-based materials
8.4.6 Pastes and mortars
8.4.7 Hollow blocks
8.4.8 Aggregates
8.4.9 Ceramic tiles
8.4.10 Fire resistance products
8.4.11 Adsorbents and catalysts
8.4.12 Filler material in polymer composites
8.4.13 Agriculture application
8.5 Environmental risks
8.6 Carbonation methods
8.7 Chemical reactions of CO2 sequestration by fly ash
8.8 Thermodynamic simulations of phase equilibria
8.9 Treatment methods
8.9.1 Direct gas carbonation
8.9.2 Direct semi-dry carbonation
8.9.3 Direct aqueous carbonation
8.9.4 Indirect carbonation
8.9.5 Synthetic CaO-based solid sorbents
8.9.5.1 Use of fly ash as an activator
8.9.5.2 Use of calcium carbide residue as an activator to fly ash
8.9.5.3 Use of activated fly ash as a stabilizer to limestone Ca-based sorbent
8.9.5.4 Alkaline solid waste sorbents structural modification via carbon templating
8.9.5.5 Use of MgO as a structural stabilizer to CaO-based sorbent
8.10 Summary and concluding remarks
References
Further reading
9 - Carbonation of steel slag
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sources and characteristics of slags
9.3 Steel and iron slags utilizations
9.3.1 Cement production and concrete manufacturing industries
9.3.2 Pavement and road applications
9.3.3 Geotechnical applications
9.3.4 Hydraulic barriers
9.3.5 Agriculture application
9.3.6 Waste management
9.3.7 Sinter ore fluxing agent
9.3.8 Carbon sequestration
9.4 Environmental impact
9.4.1 Environmental problems
9.4.2 Mitigation measures
9.5 Hydration/pretreatment
9.6 Carbonation
9.6.1 Direct carbonation
9.6.2 Aqueous carbonation
9.6.3 Additives
9.7 CO2 sequestration
9.7.1 Theoretical methods
9.7.2 Experimental methods
9.7.3 Sequestration efficiency
9.8 Treatment methods
9.8.1 Direct carbonation
9.8.1.1 Fluidized bed reactor (FBR)
9.8.1.2 High gravity rotating packed bed
9.8.1.3 Ultrasound
9.8.1.4 Spouted bed reactor
9.8.1.5 Static packed bed
9.8.1.5.1 Thin-film carbonation
9.8.1.5.2 Slurry carbonation
9.8.2 Indirect carbonation
9.8.2.1 Rotating packed bed
9.9 Summary and concluding remarks
References
10 - Carbonation of calcium carbide residue
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Calcium carbide manufacturing
10.3 Sources of calcium carbide residue
10.4 Utilization of calcium carbide residue
10.4.1 Additive material in the construction industry
10.4.2 Neutralizing/treatment agent
10.4.3 New chemical products
10.4.3.1 Calcium carbonate
10.4.3.2 Xonotlite
10.4.3.3 Calcium formate
10.4.3.4 Other chemicals
10.4.4 Flue gas treatment
10.4.5 Soil stabilizing agent
10.5 CCR disposal practice
10.6 Precipitated calcium carbonate
10.6.1 Calcite polymorph
10.6.2 Aragonite polymorph
10.6.3 Vaterite polymorph
10.6.4 Conversion of pure calcium hydroxide to calcium carbonate
10.6.5 Effect of surfactants and additives on calcium carbonate precipitation
10.7 Treatment processes
10.7.1 Mohamed and El Gamal Fluidization (MGF) direct carbonation process
10.7.1.1 Optimum operational flow rate
10.7.1.2 Carbonation time
10.7.1.3 Total amount of CO2 captured/consumed
10.7.1.4 Carbon sequestration
10.7.1.5 Gas pressure effect
10.7.1.6 Temperature effect
10.7.1.7 Morphology of CaCO3
10.7.1.8 Carbonation effectiveness
10.7.1.9 Durability of carbonated products
10.7.2 Indirect carbonation with ammonium chloride leaching
10.7.3 Production of nano-CaCO3
10.7.3.1 System-based design carbonation process
10.7.3.2 Citrate-based leaching and carbonation
10.7.3.3 Ammonia-based leaching and carbonation
10.7.4 Production of calcium formate [Ca(HCOO)2]
10.7.5 Production of xonotlite
10.7.6 Production of papermaking fillers
10.7.7 Ca-looping process
10.7.7.1 Carbonation and calcination technology
10.7.7.2 Briquetting and calcination technology
10.7.7.3 Foaming and carbonation technology
10.7.7.4 Copyrolysis technology
10.7.7.5 Carbon templating technology
10.8 Summary and concluding remarks
References
11 - Carbonation of cement-based construction waste
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Concrete waste
11.3 Waste concrete recycling
11.3.1 Soil amendment and stabilization
11.3.2 Improvement of plant growth
11.3.3 Production of geopolymers
11.3.4 Water treatment
11.3.5 Gas treatment
11.3.6 Carbonation
11.4 Cement types, composition, and hydration
11.4.1 Types and composition
11.4.2 Cement hydration
11.4.2.1 Tri-calcium silicate (C3S)
11.4.2.2 Di-calcium silicate (C2S)
11.4.2.3 Tri-calcium aluminate (C3A)
11.4.2.4 Tetra-calcium alumino-ferrite (C4AF)
11.5 Carbonation mechanisms
11.5.1 Carbonation of portlandite (CH)
11.5.2 Carbonation of calcium-silicate-hydrate (C–S–H)
11.5.3 Carbonation of other phases
11.6 Carbonation of cementitious products
11.6.1 Pure brucite and portlandite
11.6.1.1 Ambient temperature condition effect
11.6.1.2 Accelerated conditions effect
11.6.1.3 Pressure effect
11.6.1.4 Monolithic product effect
11.6.2 Ordinary Portland Cement
11.7 Carbonation of concrete cement waste
11.7.1 Carbonation process
11.7.2 Waste characteristics
11.7.3 Carbonation potential
11.7.4 Controlling parameters
11.7.4.1 Pressure, time, and liquid-to-solid and gas-to-liquid ratios
11.7.4.2 Grain size fractions
11.8 Supercritical CO2 carbonation of cement concrete waste
11.9 Pozzolanic reactivity of carbonated concrete cement fines waste
11.10 Industrial concrete waste recycling
11.11 Summary and concluding remarks
References
12 - Carbonation of mine tailings waste
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mine tailings waste residues
12.2.1 Sources
12.2.2 Properties
12.3 Natural carbonation of tailings waste residues
12.4 Mineral carbonation
12.4.1 Carbonation of Ca-rich minerals
12.4.2 Carbonation of Na-rich minerals
12.4.3 Carbonation of Mg-rich minerals
12.4.4 Pretreatment methods
12.4.5 Single step direct aqueous carbonation
12.4.6 Two-step carbonation
12.5 Carbonation of anorthosite tailing waste residues
12.6 Carbonation of ultramafic tailing waste residues
12.6.1 Brucite dissolution and carbonation rates
12.6.2 Brucite reaction mechanisms
12.6.3 Chrysotile carbonation
12.6.3.1 Effect of water content
12.6.3.2 Effect of water injection cycles
12.6.3.3 Effect of grain size
12.7 Carbonation of ophiolitic complexes tailing waste residues
12.8 Accelerated carbonation of tailings waste residues
12.9 Red mud
12.9.1 Characteristics
12.9.2 Bayer process
12.9.3 Neutralization processes
12.9.4 Current utilization
12.9.5 Carbonation
12.9.6 Calcification-carbonation processes
12.10 Utilization of carbonated tailings waste residues
12.10.1 Supplementary cementitious material
12.10.2 Source material for cement clinker production
12.11 Summary and concluding remarks
References
Further reading
13 - Carbonation of brine waste
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Desalination capacity
13.3 Brine characteristics
13.4 Environmental issues
13.5 Brine waste management
13.6 Carbonation using solvay process
13.6.1 Basic process
13.6.2 Amine-based solvay process with chloride removal
13.7 Carbonation of high Mg and Ca brine waste
13.8 Carbonation using mixed metal oxides
13.8.1 Hydrotalcite
13.8.2 Structure of hydrotalcites
13.8.3 Chloride removal using hydrotalcites
13.8.4 Carbonation and chloride removal
13.9 Carbonation using alkaline industrial waste
13.9.1 Fly ash
13.9.2 Slags
13.9.3 Cement kiln dust
13.9.4 Bauxite residue
13.10 Carbonation using electrodialysis
13.10.1 Conventional electrodialysis
13.10.2 Ion exchange membranes electrodialysis
13.10.3 Bipolar membranes electrodialysis (BPMED)
13.11 Useful products
13.11.1 Cementitious construction materials
13.11.2 Industrial applications
13.12 Life cycle and techno-economic assessments
13.13 Summary and concluding remarks
References
Further reading
14 - Carbonation of cement kiln dust
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Sources and characteristics of cement-based dust
14.2.1 Cement kiln dust (CKD)
14.2.2 Cement bypass dust (CBPD)
14.3 Uses of cement kiln dust
14.4 Treatment of cement kiln dust
14.4.1 Hydration of CKD
14.4.2 Carbonation of CKD
14.4.2.1 Reactions
14.4.2.2 Controlling variables
14.4.2.2.1 Chemical composition
14.4.2.2.2 Moisture content
14.4.2.2.3 Size fraction
14.4.2.2.4 Pore space and microstructure
14.4.2.2.5 CO2 concentration
14.4.2.2.6 CO2 pressure
14.4.2.2.7 CO2 flux rate
14.4.2.2.8 Carbonation reaction time
14.4.2.2.9 pH
14.4.2.2.10 Temperature
14.4.2.2.11 Calcium concentration
14.4.2.2.12 Stirring speed
14.4.2.2.13 Catalysts and additives
14.4.2.2.14 Nature of the reacting bed
14.4.2.2.15 System boundary condition
14.4.3 Degree of sequestration
14.5 Treatment processes
14.5.1 Mohamed and El Gamal fluidization (MGF) process
14.5.1.1 Fluidization principle
14.5.1.2 Fluidized bed reactor apparatus
14.5.1.3 Treatment steps
14.5.1.4 Experimental results
14.5.2 Batch carbonation process
14.5.3 Column carbonation process
14.5.4 Rotating tube furnace carbonation process
14.5.5 Ultrasonic carbonation process
14.5.6 Indirect carbonation
14.6 Modeling of carbonation kinetics
14.6.1 Direct carbonation
14.6.1.1 Static bed
14.6.1.2 Fluidized bed
14.6.2 Calcium looping cycle
14.7 Summary and concluding remarks
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Z
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