Sustainable Solutions for Environmental Pollution, Volume 1: Waste Management and Value-Added Products

Cover
Half-Title Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
1 An Overview of Electro-Fermentation as a Platform for Future Biorefineries
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fundamental Mechanisms
1.3 Value-Added Products from Electro-Fermentation
1.3.1 Carboxylates
1.3.1.1 Short-Chain Carboxylates
1.3.1.2 Medium-Chain Carboxylates
1.3.2 Bioethanol
1.3.3 Bio-Butanol
1.3.4 Microalgae Derived Lipids
1.3.5 Acetoin
1.3.6 Biopolymer
1.3.7 L-lysine
1.3.8 1,3-propanediol
1.4 Challenges and Future Outlook
1.5 Acknowledgements
References
2 Biodiesel Sustainability: Challenges and Perspectives
Abbreviations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biodiesel Production
2.3 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Production Process
2.3.1 The Type of Feedstock
2.3.2 The Type of Alcohol
2.3.3 Effect of Alcohol to Oil Molar Ratio
2.3.4 Catalyst Concentration
2.3.5 Catalysts Type
2.3.5.1 Lipases
2.3.5.2 Acid Catalysts
2.3.5.3 Alkaline Catalysts
2.3.6 Effect of Reaction Temperature
2.3.7 Effect of Reaction Time
2.3.8 Mixing Efficiency
2.3.9 Effect of pH
2.4 Transesterification Mechanisms
2.4.1 Homogeneous Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction
2.4.2 Lipase-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction
2.4.3 CaO-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction
2.4.4 Other Calcium Derived-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction
2.5 Production of Biodiesel Using Heterogeneous Catalyst Prepared from Natural Sources
2.6 Challenges and Perspectives
References
3 Multidisciplinary Sides of Environmental Engineering and Sustainability
3.1 Introduction
3.2 System Theory and Integrated System Approach
3.2.1 System Theory
3.2.2 The State of the System and State Variables
3.2.3 Input Variables (Parameters)
3.2.4 Design Variables (Parameters)
3.2.5 Physico-Chemical Variables (Parameters)
3.2.6 Boundaries of System
3.2.6.1 Isolated System
3.2.6.2 Closed System
3.2.6.3 Open System
3.2.7 Steady, Unsteady States and Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Systems
3.3 Sustainable Development, Sustainable Development Engineering and Environmental Engineering
3.3.1 Bio-Fuels and Integrated Bio-Refineries
3.3.2 Integrated System Approach
3.4 Advanced Multi-Disciplinary Sustainable Engineering Education
3.4.1 Bio-Fuels
3.4.1.1 Bio-Hydrogen
3.4.1.2 Bio-Diesel
3.4.1.3 Bio-Ethanol
3.4.2 Bio-Products
3.4.3 Integrated Bio-Refineries
3.4.4 Development of Novel Technologies
3.4.5 Economics of Bio-Fuels and Bio-Products
3.4.6 Nano-Technology (NT)
3.4.7 Non-Linear Dynamics (NLDs), Bifurcation (B), Chaos (C) and Complexity (COMP)
3.4.8 Sustainable Development (SD), Sustainable Development Engineering (SDE), System Theory (ST) and Integrated System Approach
3.4.9 Novel Education
3.4.10 New Journal
3.5 Novel Designs for Auto-Thermal Behavior Towards Sustainability
3.5.1 Integrated System Approach Classification
3.6 Conclusions
References
4 Biofuels
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Composition
4.3 Classification of Biofuels
4.3.1 First-Generation Biofuels
4.3.1.1 Sugars and Starch
4.3.1.2 Cellulose
4.3.1.3 Lignin
4.3.2 Second-Generation Biofuels
4.3.3 Third-Generation Biofuels
4.4 Examples of Biofuels
4.4.1 Biodiesel
4.4.2 Bio-Alcohols
4.4.3 Bioethers
4.4.4 Biogas
4.4.5 Bio-Oil
4.4.6 Synthesis Gas
4.5 Property Variations with Source
4.6 Properties Compared to Fuels from Crude Oil Tar Sand Bitumen, Coal and Oil Shale
4.7 Fuel Specifications and Performance
4.8 Conclusion
References
5 Sustainable Valorization of Waste Cooking Oil into Biofuels and Green Chemicals: Recent Trends, Opportunities and Challenges
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Waste Cooking Oil (WCO)
5.3 Biofuels from WCO
5.3.1 Biodiesel
5.3.2 Biojet Fuel
5.3.2.1 Hydro-Treatment Process
5.3.2.2 Cracking and Isomerisation Processes
5.4 Green Chemicals from WCO
5.4.1 Asphalt Rejuvenator
5.4.2 Plasticizers
5.4.3 Polyurethane Foam
5.4.4 Bio-Lubricants
5.4.5 Surfactants
5.5 Challenges and Future Work
5.6 Conclusion
References
6 Waste Valorization: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Routes
6.1 Background
6.2 Land Biomass vs. Oceanic Biomass
6.3 Waste Management
6.4 Waste Valorization for Adsorbents Development
6.5 Waste Valorization for Catalysts Preparations
6.6 Bio-Based Waste Valorization for Bio-Fuel and Bio-Fertilizer Production
6.6.1 Biomass Briquetting: (Bio-Fuel)
6.6.2 Composting: (Bio-Fertilizer)
6.6.3 Anaerobic Digestion: (Bio-Fuel)
6.7 Biochemical Mechanism Involved in Anaerobic Digestion System
6.7.1 Hydrolysis
6.7.2 Acidogenesis
6.7.3 Acetogenesis
6.7.4 Methanogenesis
6.8 Challenges and Recent Advances in Anaerobic Digestion
6.9 Bio-Based Waste and Bioeconomy Perspective
6.10 Conclusion
References
7 Electrocoagulation Process in the Treatment of Landfill Leachate
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Decomposition of Solid Waste
7.3 Landfill Leachate Properties
7.3.1 Organic Matter
7.3.2 Inorganic Substances
7.3.3 Heavy Metals
7.3.4 Xenobiotic Organics
7.4 Characteristics of Landfill Leachate
7.5 Electrocoagulation Process
7.5.1 Fundamentals of Electrocoagulation Process
7.5.2 Mechanism of Electrocoagulation Process
7.5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
7.6 Key Parameters of Electrocoagulation Process
7.6.1 Electrodes Material
7.6.2 Electrodes Arrangement
7.6.3 Electrode Spacing
7.6.4 Current Density
7.6.5 Electrolysis Time
7.6.6 Initial pH
7.6.7 Agitation Speed
7.6.8 Electrolyte Conductivity
7.7 Operating Mode
7.8 Economic Analysis
7.9 Case Study: Removal of the Organic Pollutant of Colour in Natural Saline Leachate from Pulau Burung Landfill Site
7.9.1 Pulau Burung Landfill Site
7.9.2 Experimental Design
7.9.3 Results and Discussion
7.10 Gaps in Current Knowledge
7.11 Conclusion and Future Prospect
References
8 Sustainable Solutions for Environmental Pollutants from Solid Waste Landfills
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Domestic Solid Waste and Its Critical Environmental Issues
8.3 Landfill Leachate Characterization and Its Impact on the Environment
8.4 Effect of Landfills on Air Quality
8.5 Effect of Unsuitable Location of Landfill on Environment and Community
8.6 Recent Sustainable Technologies for Leachate Treatment
8.6.1 Effects of AOPs on Leachate Biodegradability
8.6.2 Case Study and Proposed Data for Leachate Treatment Plant Using AOPs
8.7 Sustainable Solutions for Gas Emission
8.8 Consideration for Selection of Sustainable Locations for Landfills
8.9 Conclusion
References
9 Progress on Ionic Liquid Pre-Treatment for Lignocellulosic Biomass Valorization into Biofuels and Bio-Products
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass for Biofuels and Bio-Products
9.2.1 Cellulose
9.2.2 Hemicellulose
9.2.3 Lignin
9.3 Pre-Treatment Technologies for Lignocellulosic Biomass
9.4 Ionic Liquids for Lignocellulosic Biomass Pre-Treatment: Characteristics and Properties
9.5 Insights into Pre-Treatment Performance of Ionic Liquids
9.5.1 Interactions of Ionic Liquids with Lignocellulose
9.5.2 Effect of the Ionic Liquid Pre-Treatment on the Recovered Biomass
9.5.3 Impact of Ionic Liquids on the Biological Tools
9.6 Concluding Remarks: Challenges Facing the Development of Ionic Liquids Use at Large Scale and Future Directions
References
10 Septage Characterization and Sustainable Fecal Sludge Management in Rural Nablus – Palestine
List of Abbreviations
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Background
10.1.2 What is Fecal Sludge?
10.1.3 Legal Considerations
10.1.4 Study Area
10.2 Septage Characteristics
10.2.1 Introduction
10.2.2 General Background of Septage Characterization
10.2.3 General Treatment of Fecal Sludge
10.3 Study Methodology
10.3.1 General
10.3.2 Research Methodology and Methods of Laboratory Analysis
10.3.2.1 Data Collection
10.3.2.2 Sampling and Storage
10.3.2.3 Sampling of Septage
10.3.2.4 Sampling of Stools and Urine
10.3.2.5 Storage of Samples
10.3.3 Characterization of Fecal Sludge (FS)
10.3.4 Statistical Analysis of Data on Characterization of FS
10.4 Septage Pre-Treatment Process
10.4.1 General Treatment Options
10.4.2 Selection of Treatment Options
10.4.3 Septage Quality Determination
10.4.4 Software Selection
10.4.4.1 Modeling by GPS-X 7.0
10.4.5 End-Use and Disposal
10.5 Results and Discussion
10.5.1 Measured Parameters for Fecal Sludge
10.5.1.1 Septage Characteristics
10.5.2 Stools Characteristics
10.5.3 Urine Characteristics
10.5.4 Specific Parameters in Details
10.5.4.1 pH and EC
10.5.4.2 Turbidity
10.5.4.3 COD/BOD5
10.5.4.4 Total Nitrogen and Ammonia
10.5.4.5 TS, TDS, and TSS
10.5.4.6 VS, VDS, and VSS
10.5.4.7 PO
-P and PO
-T
10.5.4.8 Fat and Grease
10.5.4.9 Alkalinity
10.5.4.10 TC and FC
10.6 Pre-Treatment of the Fecal Sludge – Results and Discussions
10.6.1 Quantification of Domestic Septage
10.6.2 Design Septage Characteristics
10.6.2.1 Untreated Septage Characteristics
10.6.2.2 Treated Septage Characteristics
10.6.3 Software Design
10.6.3.1 Treatment Plant Modeling
10.6.3.2 Optimizing the Appropriate Model
10.7 Treatment Plant Estimated Cost Breakdown
10.8 Conclusion
10.9 Recommendations
References
11 Lipase Catalyzed Reactions: A Promising Approach for Clean Synthesis of Oleochemicals
11.1 Introduction to Oleochemicals Industry
11.2 Sources of Lipases
11.2.1 Bacterial Lipases
11.2.2 Fungal Lipases
11.2.3 Plant Lipases
11.2.4 Animal Lipases
11.3 Application of Lipases
11.3.1 Monoglycerides Production
11.3.2 Oil/Fats Glycerolysis (Chemically Catalyzed)
11.3.3 Oil/Fats Glycerolysis (Enzymatically Catalyzed)
11.3.4 Biodiesel Production
11.4 Lipase Catalyzed Production of Biodiesel
11.4.1 Production of Biodiesel from Oil Extracted from Spent Bleaching Earth (SBE)
11.5 Esterification of Fatty Acids with Glycerol
11.5.1 Chemically Catalyzed Esterification
11.5.2 Lipase Catalyzed Production of Monoglycerides
11.6 Interesterification
11.6.1 Chemical Interesterification
11.6.2 Enzymatic Interesterification
11.7 Environmental Benefits of Enzymatic Process Against Chemical Process
11.8 Conclusion
References
12 Seaweeds for Sustainable Development
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of Seaweeds
12.2.1 Green Algae
12.2.2 Red Algae
12.2.3 Brown Algae
12.3 Bioremediation
12.3.1 Pollution
12.3.2 Bioremediation of Polluted Water
12.3.3 Algal Bioremediation of Eutrophic Water
12.4 Seaweeds in Nutrition
12.4.1 Human Nutrition
12.4.2 Animal Feed and Feed Additive
12.5 Seaweeds as a Source of Pharmaceutics
12.5.1 Pharmaceutics from Green Algae
12.5.2 Pharamaceutics from Brown Algae
12.5.3 Pharmaceutics from Red Algae
12.6 Seaweeds Hydrocolloids and Biopolymers
12.6.1 Agar
12.6.2 Carrageenans
12.6.3 Alginates (Alginic Acid)
12.7 Seaweeds and Bioenergy
12.8 Seaweeds as Biofertilizers
12.9 Seaweeds as Ecological Player in Sulfur Geocycle
12.10 Culturing Seaweeds in the Marine Habitat (Algal Maricultures)
12.10.1 Mariculture Establishment
12.10.1.1 Single Culture
12.10.1.2 Repeated Culture
12.10.1.3 Multiple Cultures
12.10.2 Cultured Seaweed Harvest
12.10.3 Processes Following the Algae Harvest
12.11 Conclusion
12.12 Recommendations
References
Websites
About the Editor
Index
Also of Interest
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