Supercapacitors and Their Applications: Fundamentals, Current Trends, and Future Perspectives

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Editor Biographies
Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1 Historical Perspectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Capacitance of a Capacitor
1.3 Working Principle of a Capacitor
1.4 Energy Stored in Capacitor
1.5 Types of Capacitors
1.5.1 Electrostatic Capacitor
1.5.1.1 Air Capacitor
1.5.1.2 Ceramic Capacitor
1.5.1.3 Mica Capacitor
1.5.1.4 Paper/Plastic Film Capacitor
1.5.2 Electrolytic Capacitor
1.5.2.1 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor
1.5.2.2 Tantalum and Niobium Electrolytic Capacitor
1.5.3 Supercapacitors
1.5.3.1 Electric Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC
1.5.3.2 Pseudocapacitor
1.5.3.3 Hybrid Supercapacitor
1.6 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 2 Electric Double-Layer Capacitors
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Electrical Double-Layer Theories
2.2.1 The Helmholtz Model
2.2.2 The Gouy-Chapman or Diffuse Model
2.2.3 The Stern Model
2.2.4 Modified Theories
2.3 Theoretical Treatments and Modelling
2.3.1 The Classical Equivalent Circuit
2.3.2 The Three-Branch Model
2.3.3 The Porous Electrode Theory
2.3.4 Transmission Line Model (TLM)
2.4 Energy Density and Power Density
2.4.1 The Ragone Plot
2.5 Electrode Materials
2.5.1 Activated Carbon
2.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
2.5.3 Carbon Aerogel
2.5.4 Carbon Nanofibre (CNF)
2.5.5 Graphene
2.5.6 Fullerene
2.6 Electrolyte Materials
2.7 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Pseudocapacitors
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pseudocapacitors
3.3 Energetics and Kinetics of Pseudocapacitance
3.3.1 The Definition of Pseudocapacitance
3.4 Electrode Materials
3.4.1 Metal Oxides
3.4.1.1 Ruthenium Oxide (RuO2
3.4.1.2 Manganese Oxide (MnO2
3.4.1.3 Nickel Oxide (NiO
3.4.1.4 Vanadium Oxides
3.4.2 Binary and Ternary oxides
3.4.3 Chalcogenides
3.4.3.1 Nickel Sulphides
3.4.3.2 Cobalt Sulphides
3.4.3.3 Copper Selenides
3.4.4 Conducting Polymers
3.4.4.1 Polyaniline (PANI
3.4.5 Nanostructured Carbon
3.5 Electrolytes
3.5.1 Classification of Electrolytes
3.5.2 Criteria for Selection of Electrolyte
3.5.3 Additives in Electrolytes
3.6 Separators
3.7 Current Collectors
3.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4 Looking Deeper into Electrode Processes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fundamentals of Electric Double-Layer Capacitance and
Pseudocapacitance
4.2.1 Materials with Pseudocapacitive Behavior
4.2.1.1 Intrinsic Pseudocapacitor Materials
4.2.1.2 Extrinsic Pseudocapacitor Materials
4.2.2 Intercalation Pseudocapacitance
4.2.2.1 Cation Intercalation Pseudocapacitance
4.2.2.2 Anion Intercalation Pseudocapacitance
4.2.3 Carbon-Based Electrode Materials
4.3 Effect of Structure and Porosity on Electrochemical Performance of
Supercapacitors
4.3.1 Effect of Porosity on Electrochemical Performance
4.3.2 Effect of Structure on Electrochemical Performance
4.4 Tuning the Performance of Supercapacitors by Understanding the Concepts
4.4.1 Methods for Tuning Supercapacitor Performance
4.4.1.1 Nanostructuring of Electrodes
4.4.1.2 Chemical Activation of Active Electrode Material
4.4.1.3 Physical Activation of Active Electrode Material
4.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Design Considerations
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Supercapacitor System Design Considerations
5.2.1 Cell Voltage
5.2.2 Frequency Response
5.2.3 Ambient Temperature
5.2.4 Polarity
5.2.5 Lifetime and Cycle Charging
5.2.6 Humidity
5.2.7 Efficiency
5.3 Single Cell Manufacturing
5.3.1 Electrode
5.3.2 Electrolyte
5.3.3 Separator
5.3.4 Collector Plate
5.3.5 Sealants
5.3.6 Different Configurations
5.3.6.1 Symmetric Supercapacitors
5.3.6.2 Asymmetric Supercapacitors
5.3.6.3 Hybrid Capacitors
5.3.7 Interconnection
5.4 Summary
References
Chapter 6 Characterization Techniques
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Cyclic Voltammetry (CV
6.3 Galvanostatic Charge/Discharge or Chronopotentiometry
6.4 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS
6.5 Modelling Techniques
6.5.1 Empirical Modelling
6.5.2 Dissipation Transmission Line Models
6.5.3 Continuum Models
6.5.4 Atomistic Models
6.5.5 Quantum Models
6.5.6 Simplified Analytical Models
6.6 Summary
References
Chapter 7 Design, Fabrication, and Operation
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Considerations and Trends for Single-Cell Supercapacitors
7.2.1 Coin Cell Supercapacitor
7.2.2 Cylindrical Cell Supercapacitor
7.2.3 Prismatic Cell Supercapacitor
7.3 Parameters Affecting Performance
7.4 Operation of Functional Supercapacitor
7.4.1 Self-Discharging
7.4.2 Cell Ageing and Voltage Decay
7.5 Supercapattery
7.6 Stack Manufacturing and Construction
7.7 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 8 Conventional Applications of Supercapacitors
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Load Levelling
8.2.1 Introduction
8.2.2 Supercapacitors in Load-Levelling Applications
8.2.3 Hybrid Supercapacitors in Load-Levelling Applications
8.3 Regenerative Braking
8.3.1 Introduction
8.3.2 Supercapacitors in Regenerative Braking Applications
8.4 Cranes, Lifts, and Trucks
8.4.1 Introduction
8.4.2 Supercapacitors in Cranes
8.4.3 Supercapacitors in Trucks and Lifts
8.5 Consumer Electronics
8.6 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 9 Portable Electronics and Microsupercapacitors
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Portable Electronics
9.3 Supercapacitors in Wearable Electronics
9.4 Microsupercapacitors
9.4.1 Fundamentals of Microsupercapacitors
9.4.1.1 Sandwich-Like Design
9.4.1.2 In-Plane Interdigitated Design
9.4.2 Fabrication Techniques for Interdigital Microsupercapacitors
9.4.3 Electrode Materials
9.5 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 10 Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Modern Electric Vehicles
10.2.1 Major Types of Electric Vehicles
10.2.1.1 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV
10.2.1.2 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV
10.2.1.3 Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FCHEV
10.2.1.4 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV
10.2.1.5 Range Extender Electric Vehicle (REXEV
10.3 Storage Systems for Electric Vehicle Applications
10.3.1 Fuel Cells
10.3.2 Hybrid Storage System (HSS
10.3.3 Hybrid Supercapacitors for EV Applications
10.4 The Modeling of Supercapacitors in EVs
10.4.1 Electric Models
10.4.2 Thermal Modeling
10.5 Summary
References
Chapter 11 Power Harvesting and Storage System: Supercapacitors Aiding New and Renewable Energy Generation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Integrated Solar Cell–Supercapacitor System
11.2.1 Device Architecture
11.2.2 Integrated Silicon Solar Cell–Supercapacitor System
11.2.3 Integrated OSC–Supercapacitor System
11.2.4 Integrated DSSC–Supercapacitor System
11.3 Wind Turbines
11.3.1 Wind Turbine Power Characteristics
11.3.2 Supercapacitors Linked to Wind Farms
11.4 Blue Energy: Capacitive Storage
11.4.1 Introduction
11.4.2 Theoretical Analysis
11.4.3 Capacitive Energy Extraction: Electric Double Layer
11.4.4 Capacitive Energy Extraction: Faradaic Pseudocapacitor
11.5 Summary
References
Chapter 12 Market Trends, Innovations and Challenges
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Market Considerations
12.2.1 Demand Creation in the Existing Market
12.2.1.1 Hybrid Energy Storage Systems
12.2.1.2 Replacement of Traditional Battery Systems
12.2.1.3 Replacement of Traditional Capacitor Systems
12.2.2 Market Considerations Specific to End Users
12.2.2.1 Automobile Electronics
12.2.2.2 Industrial Electronics
12.2.2.3 Consumer Electronics
12.3 Innovative Technologies and Future Perspectives
12.3.1 Novel Materials
12.3.2 Technological Developments
12.3.2.1 Flexible Supercapacitors
12.3.2.2 Micro Supercapacitors (MSCs
12.3.2.3 Hybrid Capacitors
12.3.2.4 Piezoelectric SCs
12.3.2.5 Shape Memory SCs
12.3.2.6 Transparent Supercapacitors and Others
12.3.3 Developments in the Application Scenario
12.3.3.1 Social Demands
12.3.3.2 Scalability
12.4 Challenges Associated with Development of Supercapacitors
12.4.1 Technical Challenges
12.4.1.1 Electrode Materials
12.4.1.2 Electrolytes
12.4.2 Challenges in the Application Perspective
12.5 Summary and Outlook
References
Index