Structure and Health Effects of Natural Products on Diabetes Mellitus

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction of Diabetes Mellitus and Future Prospects of Natural Products on Diabetes Mellitus
1 Diabetes Mellitus
2 Status of Medication
3 Natural Products
3.1 Toxicity
3.2 Solubility and Stability
3.3 Combinations of Drugs
3.4 Lifestyle
4 Outlook of Natural Products on Diabetes Mellitus
References
Chapter 2: An Overview of Hypoglycemic Modern Drugs
1 Introduction
2 Insulin Sensitizers
2.1 Biguanides
2.2 Thiazolidinediones
2.3 Lyn Kinase Activators
3 Secretagogues
3.1 Sulfonylureas Secretagogues
3.2 Non-sulfonylurea Secretagogues
4 α-Glucosidase Inhibitor
5 SGLT-2 Inhibitors
6 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 3: An Overview of Hypoglycemic Biological Drugs
1 Introduction
2 Insulin and Its Analogues
2.1 The History of Insulin
2.2 The Structure of Insulin
2.3 The Activities of Insulin
2.4 The Categories of Insulin and Its Analogues
2.4.1 Fast-Acting Insulins and Analogues
2.4.2 Intermediate-Acting Insulins
2.4.3 Long-Acting Insulins and Analogues
2.4.4 Ultra-Long-Acting Insulin Analogues
2.4.5 Insulin Analogue Premixes
2.5 The Adverse Reactions of Insulin Therapy
2.6 The Different Dosage Forms of Insulin and Analogues
3 Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Receptor Agonists
3.1 The Introduction of GLP-1 and GLP-1 Receptor Agonists
3.2 The History of GLP-1 and GLP-1 Receptor Agonists
3.3 The Activities of GLP-1
3.4 The Categories of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists and the Representative Drugs
3.5 The Adverse Effects of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists
4 Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP) Analogues
4.1 The Structure and Mechanisms of IAPP
4.2 The Representative IAPP Analogues: Pramlintide
5 Other Hypoglycemic Biological Drugs
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: An Overview of Hypoglycemic Traditional Drugs
1 Introduction
2 Asian Traditional Medicine
2.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine
2.1.1 Some Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine
2.1.1.1. Ophiopogon japonicus (Linn. f.) Ker-Gawl
2.1.1.2. Ginseng (The Roots of Panax ginseng C. A. Mey.)
2.1.1.3 Schisandra chinensis
2.1.1.4. Pueraria lobata (The Root of Kudzu Vine)
2.1.1.5. Fruit of Chinese Wolfberry (Lycium Chinense Mill.)
2.1.2 Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula
2.1.2.1. Liuwei Dihuang Decoction (LWDHT)
2.1.2.2. Jinqi Recipe
2.1.2.3. Huanglian Decoction
2.2 Traditional Indian Medicine
2.2.1 Gymnema sylvestre
2.2.2 Ficus religiosa
2.2.3 Ocimum sanctum
2.2.4 Trigonella foenum-graecum
3 African Traditional Medicine
3.1 Congo
3.2 Algeria
3.3 Nigeria
3.4 Uganda
3.5 Sudan
3.6 South Africa
4 Traditional American Medicine
4.1 Cecropia obtusifolia Bertol (Cecropiaceae)
4.2 Calea ternifolia
4.3 Xoconostle (Opuntia joconostle)
4.4 Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae)
4.5 Cucurbita ficifolia
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Glycosides from Natural Sources in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
1 Introduction
2 Glycosides in Diabetes
2.1 Rutin
2.2 Puerarin
2.3 Gymnemic Acid I
2.4 Stevioside
2.5 Securigenin
3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Isolation and Structure Elucidation of Hypoglycemic Compounds
1 Introduction
2 Polysaccharides
2.1 Crude Extraction
2.2 Isolation and Purification
2.2.1 Removal of Proteins and Pigments
2.2.2 Further Purification
2.3 Structure Elucidation
2.3.1 Primary Structure of Polysaccharides
2.3.2 Higher-Level Structure of Polysaccharides
3 Flavonoids and Their Glycosides
3.1 Crude Extraction
3.2 Isolation and Purification
3.3 Structure Elucidation
3.3.1 Determine the Type of Compounds
3.3.2 Determine the Composition and Structure
3.3.3 Quantitative Calculation
4 Alkaloids
4.1 Crude Extraction
4.2 Isolation and Purification
4.2.1 Chromatography
4.2.2 Resin Adsorption Method
4.2.3 Membrane Separation Method
4.2.4 Molecular Imprinting
4.3 Structural Elucidation
4.3.1 Determine the Type of Compounds
4.3.2 Determine the Composition and Structure
4.3.3 Quantitative Calculation
5 Saponins
5.1 Crude Extraction
5.2 Isolation and Purification
5.3 Structural Elucidation
5.3.1 Determine the Type of Compounds
5.3.2 Determine the Composition and Structure
5.3.3 Quantitative Calculation
6 Terpenoids
6.1 Crude Extraction
6.2 Isolation and Purification
6.3 Structural Elucidation
6.3.1 Determine the Type of Compounds
6.3.2 Determine the Molecular Weight and Structure
6.3.3 Quantitative Calculation
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Structural Characterization and Health Effects of Polysaccharides from Momordica charantia on Diabetes Mellitus
1 Introduction
2 Procedure of Extraction and Purification
3 Structural Features
4 Hypoglycemic Activity
5 Mechanism of the Hypoglycemic Activity
5.1 Protecting Islet β Cells and Promoting Insulin Secretion
5.2 Increasing Sensitivity to Insulin
5.3 Inhibiting the Activities of α-Amylase and α-Glucosidase
5.4 Others
6 Summary and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 8: Effects of Polysaccharides on Reducing Blood Glucose Based on Gut Microbiota Alteration
1 Introduction
2 Effects Mechanism of Polysaccharides Regulating Blood Glucose
3 Gut Microbiota and Blood Glucose Regulation
3.1 Regulation of Inflammation
3.2 Maintain Intestinal Mucosal Permeability
3.3 Control the Metabolism of Bile Acids, Short-Chain Fatty Acids, and Glucose
4 Effects of Polysaccharides on Intestinal Microbiota
4.1 Relationship Between Polysaccharides and Gut Microbiota
4.2 Polysaccharides Improve Glucometabolism by Gut Microbiota
5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 9: An Overview of Polysaccharides and the Influence Factors of Hypoglycemic Activity
1 Introduction
1.1 Plant Polysaccharides
1.2 Fungal Polysaccharides
1.3 Algae Polysaccharides
1.4 Animal Polysaccharides
1.5 Bacterial Polysaccharides
2 Determinant Factors of Hypoglycemic Polysaccharides
2.1 Preparation of Polysaccharides
2.2 Molecular Weight
2.3 Structure-Activity Relationship
2.3.1 Monosaccharide Composition
2.3.2 Molecular Modification of Polysaccharides
2.3.3 Polysaccharide Complex
3 Mechanism of Hypoglycemic Polysaccharides
3.1 β-Cell Dysfunction
3.2 Inhibiting α-Amylase and α-Glucosidase
3.3 Related Signaling Pathways
3.4 Others
4 Conclusion and Prospect
References
Chapter 10: Plant Secondary Metabolites with α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activity
1 Introduction
2 Flavonoids
3 N-Containing Compounds
4 Terpenoids
5 Isolation and Identification of Naturally Occurring α-Glucosidase Inhibitors Derived from Plants
6 Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 11: Rhinacanthin-C and Its Potential to Control Diabetes Mellitus
1 Introduction
2 Rhinacanthin-C and Its Botanical Source
3 Biogenetic Pathways of Rhinacanthin-C
4 Rhinacanthins Enriched Rhinacanthus nasutus Leaf Extract
5 Quantitative HPLC Analysis of Rhinacanthins
6 Role of Rhinacanthin-C in Diabetes Mellitus
7 Role of Rhinacanthin-C in the Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
8 Pharmacokinetics and Toxicity of Rhinacanthin-C
9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 12: Regeneration of Beta Cells by Inhibition of pro-Apoptotic Proteins through Phytocompound in STZ Induced Diabetic A...
1 Introduction
1.1 Blood Glucose Homeostasis
1.2 Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
1.3 Types
1.4 Apoptotic Pathways
1.5 Proposed Mechanisms for Protective/Regenerative Effect of Phytochemicals
2 Experimental Procedures
2.1 Chosen Plant
2.1.1 Collection of Plant Materials and Extract Preparation
2.1.2 Bioassay Guided Fractionation of E. scaber
2.2 Animals
2.2.1 Induction of Diabetes
2.2.2 Protocol
2.2.3 Histological Studies
2.3 In Silico Analysis to Study the Role of Compounds on pro-Apoptotic Proteins
2.3.1 Protein Preparation
2.3.2 Ligand Preparation
2.4 Molecular Docking
3 Results
3.1 Anti-Diabetic Activity of Fractions/Compounds
3.2 Histological Analysis-EM Study
3.3 Non-toxicity
3.4 In Silico Analysis-Docking
3.5 Pro-apoptotic Proteins
3.6 Phytocompound as Inhibitors of pro-Apoptotic Proteins
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Nitrogenous Compounds from Plant Origin in Management of Diabetes Mellitus
1 Introduction
2 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds from Plants
2.1 Alkaloids and Diabetes
2.1.1 Alkaloids as α-amylase and α-glucosidase Enzyme Inhibitors (Fig. 13.1)
2.1.2 Alkaloids as Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors (DDP-4 Inhibitors) (Fig. 13.2)
2.1.3 Alkaloids as Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B Inhibitors (PTP 1B) (Fig. 13.3)
2.1.4 Alkaloids as GLUT-4 Transporter Activator (Fig. 13.4)
2.1.5 Alkaloids as Pancreatic β-cells Regenerators and Insulin Secretion Enhancer (Fig. 13.5)
2.1.6 Anti-hyperglycaemic Agent
2.2 Amino Acids and Amines in Diabetes (Fig. 13.7)
3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Plant Alkaloids with Antidiabetic Potential
1 Introduction
2 Alkaloids
2.1 Classification of Alkaloids
2.1.1 True Alkaloids (Heterocyclics)
2.1.2 Protoalkaloids (Non-heterocyclics)
2.1.3 Pseudoalkaloids
3 Alkaloids and Diabetes
3.1 In Vitro Studies
3.2 In Vivo Studies
4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: The Role of Alkaloids in the Management of Diabetes Mellitus
1 Introduction
2 Current Management
3 Signal Pathways
4 Alkaloids and Diabetes
4.1 Alkaloids Part A
4.2 Alkaloids Part B
5 Recent Advances
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Traditional Indian Herbs for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus and their Herb-Drug Interaction Potentials: An Ev...
1 Introduction
2 Search Criteria
3 Common Antidiabetic Drugs
4 Antidiabetic Plants in Traditional Medicines
5 Mechanisms of Herb-Drug Interaction
5.1 Pharmacokinetic Herb-Drug Interactions
5.2 Pharmacodynamic Herb-Drug Interactions
6 Antidiabetic-Herb Interactions
6.1 Karela (Momordica charantia)
6.2 Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)
6.3 Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)
6.4 Ginseng (Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolium)
6.5 Andrographis paniculata (Green Chireta)
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Role of Micronutrients and Trace Elements in Diabetes Mellitus: A Review
1 Introduction
2 Zinc
3 Magnesium
4 Iron
5 Copper
6 Chromium
7 Other Trace Elements
8 Combined Trace Elements
9 Vitamin K
10 Vitamin E
11 Vitamin D
12 Vitamin C
13 Vitamin B Complex
14 Conclusion
References