Storing Energy: with Special Reference to Renewable Energy Sources

Front Cover
Storing Energy
Storing Energy: with Special Reference to Renewable Energy Sources
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
References
A - Introduction
1 - Global warming, greenhouse gases, renewable energy, and storing energy
1. Introduction
2. Global warming and greenhouse gases
3. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
4. Renewable energy
5. Our present energy situation
6. The urgent need for storing energy
7. Conclusion
References
2 - Energy storage options to balance renewable electricity systems
1. Introduction
2. The need for new types of storage
2.1 Impact of demands on generation imbalances
2.2 Strategies to cope with electricity system imbalances
3. Storage technologies
3.1 Gravitational/mechanical
3.2 Electrochemical and electrical
3.3 Thermal
3.4 Chemical
4. Comparing storage systems
5. Challenges for energy storage
5.1 Integrating energy storage into low-carbon energy systems
5.1.1 Generation-integrated energy storage
5.1.2 Analysing energy storage integration using models
5.2 Innovation to reduce technology costs
5.3 Adapting energy markets to realize the value of energy storage
5.4 Public acceptance
5.5 Regulatory barriers to energy storage
5.6 Finding the most appropriate roles for energy storage technologies
6. Conclusions
References
B - Gravitational/thermomechanical storage techniques
3 - Pumped hydro storage (PHS)
1. Introduction
2. Storage cycles duration
3. Conventional arrangement types
4. Services provided by PHS plants
5. New arrangements for PHS
5.1 Combined short and long-term cycle seasonal pumped hydro storage (CCSPHS)
5.2 Combined hydropower and pumped hydro storage (CHPHS)
5.3 Integrated pumped hydro reverse osmosis (IPHRO) system
5.4 Other arrangements
6. Pump-turbine types
7. World potential for PHS
8. Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
4 - Novel hydroelectric storage concepts
1. Introduction
1.1 Scope and purpose
1.2 Constraints
1.3 How did we get here?
1.4 Novel hydroelectric storage categories
1.5 Future applications and markets
2. High-density fluid PHES
2.1 Background
2.2 Operation and performance characteristics
2.3 Development plans and economic performance
3. Piston-in-cylinder electrical energy storage
3.1 Background and operating principle
3.2 Piston versus PHES?
3.2.1 Location, location, location
3.2.2 Pressure by design
3.2.3 No energy limitations
3.2.4 No power limitations
3.2.5 Asymmetric charging
3.2.6 Other performance characteristics
3.2.7 What could possibly go wrong?
3.3 Piston storage economic performance
3.3.1 Capital cost
3.3.2 Finance cost
3.3.3 Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs
3.3.4 Energy costs
3.3.5 Overall storage costs
3.4 Markets for piston storage
3.4.1 Size matters, or does it?
3.4.2 Short-duration markets (<4h storage capacity)
3.4.3 Day-ahead markets (∼(4–20) h)
3.4.4 Week-ahead markets (∼20–100 h)
3.4.5 Long-duration markets (﹥100h storage capacity)
3.5 Competition to high-energy electricity storage
3.5.1 Competition or collaboration?
3.5.2 Short-duration storage
3.5.3 Hydrogen and power-to-X
3.5.4 Thermal energy storage
3.5.5 Competition review
4. Endpiece
References
5 - Gravity energy storage systems
1. Introduction
2. History
3. Physics
3.1 Energy capacity
3.1.1 Energy capacity—single weight system
3.1.2 Energy capacity—multiweight system
3.2 Power capacity
3.3 Inertia and speed of response
4. The Gravitricity system
4.1 Configurations
4.1.1 Single weight Gravitricity system
4.1.2 Multiweight
4.2 Colocation with CAES or hydrogen storage
4.3 System design
4.3.1 Weight design
4.3.2 Shafts
4.3.3 Existing shafts
4.3.4 New shafts
5. Technical characteristics
5.1 Speed of response
5.2 Efficiency
5.3 Lifetime/cycle life mining equipment cycle life
5.4 Risks/resilience
5.4.1 Technical risks
5.4.2 Commercial risks
5.5 Lifecycle carbon assessment
5.6 Other environmental impact
6. Levelized cost and comparison with other technologies
6.1 Single weight systems
6.2 Multiweight systems
7. Market
7.1 Overview
7.2 Gravitricity's route to market
7.2.1 “Early market”
7.2.2 “Later market”
7.3 Gravitricity services
7.3.1 Ancillary services
7.3.2 Peak shaving
7.3.3 Industrial and commercial power management
7.4 Revenue stacking and modeling
8. Gravitricity technology development
References
6 - Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
1. Introduction
2. CAES: modes of operation and basic principles
2.1 The basic equations governing CAES
2.2 Electrical energy, work and heat in CAES
3. Air containments for CAES
3.1 Isobaric air containment
3.2 Isochoric air containment
3.3 Air containment in tanks
3.4 The case for underground or underwater storage
4. System configurations and plant concepts
4.1 Diabatic concepts
4.2 Adiabatic concepts
5. Thermal storage for CAES
6. Performance metrics for CAES
7. Integrating CAES with generation or consumption
8. Concluding remarks
References
7 - Compressed air energy storage
1. Introduction
2. Mode of operation
3. Plant concept
3.1 Diabatic concept
3.2 Single-stage adiabatic concept
3.3 Multistage adiabatic concept
4. Underground storages
4.1 Depleted oil and gas fields
4.2 Aquifers
4.3 Salt caverns
4.4 Rock caverns
4.5 Abandoned mines
4.6 Existing plants
4.6.1 Huntorf, Germany—in operation
4.6.2 McIntosh, Alabama, USA—in operation
4.7 Conclusion
References
8 - Underwater compressed air energy storage
1. Introduction
2. Storage vessels for UWCAES
2.1 Flexible vessels
2.2 Rigid vessels
3. Anchorage and installation
4. System configurations
5. Locations
6. Cost and efficiency
7. Contrasting UWCAES with pure gravitational storage approaches in deep water
8. State of development
9. Concluding remarks
References
9 - A novel pumped hydro combined with compressed air energy storage system
1. Introduction
2. Basic principles of PHCA system
3. Characteristics of PHCA system
4. A novel constant-pressure PHCA system
5. Storage density analysis
6. Thermodynamic analysis
6.1 Energy analysis
6.2 Exergy analysis
7. Results
References
10 - Liquid air energy storage
1. Introduction
2. Energy and exergy densities of liquid air
3. Liquid air as both a storage medium and an efficient working fluid
4. Applications of LAES through integration
4.1 Integration of LAES with gas turbine peaking plants
4.2 Integration of LAES with concentrated solar power plants
4.3 Integration of LAES with nuclear power plants
4.4 Integration of LAES with liquefied natural gas regasification process
4.5 Integration of LAES with decentralized energy systems
5. Technical and economical comparison of LAES with other energy storage technologies
5.1 Technical comparison
5.2 Economic comparison
References
11 - Flywheel energy storage
1. Introduction
2. Principles of operation
2.1 Fundamentals of kinetic energy storage
2.2 Flywheel rotor–specific energy and shape factors
2.3 Flywheel rotor-specific volume
2.4 Flywheel rotor maximum operating speeds
2.5 Flywheel rotor operating speed range
3. High-performance electric flywheel storage systems
3.1 Inertia rotor design approaches
3.2 Motor generator topologies
3.3 Motor generator electromagnetic options
3.4 Bearing systems
3.5 Flywheel system installation
4. Performance attributes in comparison with other electrical storage technologies
4.1 Performance requirements of electrical storage technologies
4.2 Cost comparison of flywheel energy storage systems with other technologies
5. Current and future applications
5.1 Stationary applications for FESS
5.1.1 Electric vehicle fast (ultra) charging
5.1.2 Dockside cranes and container handling equipment
5.1.3 Grid storage applications
5.1.4 Uninterruptible Power Supplies—DRUPS
5.1.5 Uninterruptible Power Supplies—hybrid
5.1.6 Research facilities
5.1.7 Mining
5.1.8 Islanded grid storage
5.1.9 Trackside rail storage
5.2 Mobile applications for FESS
5.2.1 Vehicles for construction and mining
5.2.2 Space
5.2.3 Dockside cranes mobile
5.2.4 Electromagnetic aircraft launch
5.2.5 Motor racing
5.2.6 Hybrid vehicles
5.2.7 Rail (on vehicle)
5.2.8 Marine
6. Conclusion
References
12 - Rechargeable lithium-ion battery systems
1. Introduction
2. Physical fundamentals of lithium-ion batteries
3. Development of lithium-ion battery storage systems
3.1 Design of battery modules and systems for stationary applications
3.1.1 Consideration of efficiencies
3.2 Battery management systems
3.2.1 Modular concept
3.2.2 Single central concept
3.2.3 Single-cell concept
3.2.4 State of charge estimation
3.2.5 State of health estimation
3.2.5.1 Validation
4. System integration
4.1 Configuration
4.2 Communication infrastructure
5. Conclusions
References
C - Electrochemical and electrical energy storage techniques
13 - The road to potassium-ion batteries
1. Introduction
2. The evolution of modern batteries
3. Mechanisms of lithium-ion battery operations
3.1 Architecture
3.2 Electrochemistry
3.3 Improvements on battery chemistry
4. Cathode chemistries
4.1 Cathode materials for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries
4.1.1 Layered oxides
4.1.2 Spinel oxides
4.1.3 Polyanion-based compounds
4.1.3.1 Beyond lithium
4.2 Cathode materials for rechargeable sodium-ion batteries
4.2.1 Prussian analogs
4.2.2 Organic compounds
4.2.3 Polyanion-based compounds
4.2.4 Layered oxides
4.2.4.1 Honeycomb layered oxides
4.2.4.2 Spinel-type layered oxides
4.3 Cathode materials for rechargeable potassium-ion batteries
4.3.1 Organic compounds
4.3.2 Prussian analogs
4.3.3 Polyanion-based compounds
4.3.4 Layered oxides
4.3.4.1 Honeycomb-layered oxides
5. Electrolytes
5.1 Lithium-ion battery electrolytes
5.1.1 Nonaqueous (organic) electrolytes
5.1.2 Aqueous electrolytes
5.1.3 Ionic liquids
5.1.4 Polymer electrolytes
5.1.5 Solid (dry) polymer electrolytes
5.1.6 Gel polymer electrolytes
5.1.6.1 Beyond lithium-ion battery electrolytes
5.2 Sodium-ion battery electrolytes
5.2.1 Nonaqueous electrolytes
5.2.2 Aqueous electrolytes
5.2.3 Ionic liquids
5.2.4 Polymer electrolytes
5.3 Potassium-ion battery electrolytes
5.3.1 Solvents for electrolytes
5.3.2 Potassium salts for electrolytes
5.3.3 Electrolyte additives
5.3.4 Novel electrolytes
6. Anode materials
6.1 Anode materials for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries
6.2 Anode materials for rechargeable sodium-ion batteries (SIBs)
6.3 Anode materials for rechargeable potassium-ion batteries (KIBs)
7. Beyond cation intercalation chemistries
7.1 Rechargeable metal-chalcogenide batteries
7.1.1 Rechargeable metal-sulfur batteries
7.1.2 Rechargeable metal-selenium batteries
7.1.3 Rechargeable metal-tellurium batteries
7.2 Rechargeable metal-gas batteries
7.2.1 Rechargeable metal-air (oxygen) batteries [118]
7.2.2 Rechargeable metal-CO2 (carbon dioxide) batteries [119]
7.3 Rechargeable metal-halogen batteries
7.3.1 Rechargeable metal-iodine batteries [120]
7.4 Redox-flow batteries [121,122]
7.5 Rechargeable alkaline-earth metal batteries and related systems
7.5.1 Rechargeable magnesium batteries [123,124]
7.5.2 Rechargeable calcium batteries [125,126]
7.5.3 Rechargeable aluminum batteries [127,128]
7.6 Rechargeable halogen batteries
7.6.1 Rechargeable fluoride-ion batteries [129–132]
7.6.2 Rechargeable chloride-ion batteries [133,134]
7.7 Rechargeable dual-ion batteries [135]
8. Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
14 - Lithium–sulfur battery: Generation 5 of battery energy storage systems
1. Introduction
2. Anatomy of Li–S battery, challenges, and latest developments
2.1 Sulfur cathode: cheap and abundant with a large capacity to hold lithium but unstable
2.2 Separator: the solution chemistry of Li–S demands far more functionalities for the separator
2.3 Lithium anode: achieving the practical use of lithium metal in batteries will be revolutionary
3. Potential applications of lightweight Li–S battery: existing, emerging, and new avenues
3.1 Aviation: extended cruising time
3.2 Heavy electric vehicles: extended range and increased payload for remote areas
3.3 Maritime: the deeper level exploration of the deep blue
3.4 Aerospace: HAPS, the closest to commercial reality
4. Conclusion and outlook: custom-designed Li–S battery is on its way
References
15 - Sodium–sulfur batteries
1. Introduction
2. Principles of Na–S batteries
2.1 High-temperature (HT) Na–S batteries
2.2 Room-temperature (RT) Na–S batteries
3. Technical challenges
3.1 Shuttle mechanism
3.2 Self-discharge
4. Cathode
4.1 Conventional sulfur mixture cathode
4.2 Sulfur-carbonaceous composite cathode
4.3 Polymeric sulfur composite cathode
4.4 Sodium polysulfide/sulfide cathodes
5. Anodes
5.1 Constructing 3D current collectors
5.2 Building artificial SEI layer on Na surface
6. Electrolyte
6.1 Liquid electrolyte
6.2 Solid-state electrolyte
7. Cell configuration
8. Conclusions and perspectives
References
16 - All-solid-state batteries
1. Introduction
2. Solid-state electrolytes (SSEs)
2.1 Transport mechanism of ions in solids
2.2 Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs)
2.3 Inorganic solid-state electrolytes (ISSEs)
2.3.1 Oxide ISSEs
2.3.2 Sulfide ISSEs
2.3.3 Other types of ISSEs
2.3.4 Amorphous ISSEs
3. Interface in ASS-L/SIBs
3.1 Anodic interface in ASS-L/SIBs
3.2 Cathodic interface
4. Conclusion
References
17 - Vanadium redox flow batteries
1. Introduction and historic development
2. The function of the VRFB
3. Electrolytes of VRFB
4. VRFB versus other battery types
5. Application of VRFB
6. Recycling, environment, safety, and availability
7. Other flow batteries
7.1 Iron-chromium flow battery
7.2 Polysulfide bromine flow battery
7.3 All-organic redox flow battery
7.4 Hybrid flow batteries
7.4.1 Zinc-bromine flow battery
7.4.2 Zinc-cerium flow battery
7.4.3 Iron/iron flow battery
7.4.4 Copper/copper flow battery
7.4.5 Hydrogen-bromine battery
References
Further reading
18 - Supercapacitors
1. Introduction
2. Basics of charge storage
2.1 Electric charge
2.2 Energy storage in a capacitor
3. Historical evolution from capacitors to electrical double-layer capacitors
4. Models to explain electrical double layers
5. Evolution of electrode materials for supercapacitors
6. State-of-the-art energy storage technologies
7. Pseudocapacitive energy storage
7.1 Understanding of pseudocapacitance
7.2 Classification of pseudocapacitance
8. Material requirements for achieving simultaneous high energy density at high power density
9. Electrochemical characterization techniques for supercapacitors
9.1 Cyclic voltammetry
9.2 Galvanostatic charge-discharge
9.3 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
9.4 Energy density and power density calculations
10. Energy storage devices
10.1 On-chip energy storage
10.2 Micropower sources for filtering applications
10.3 Integrated microsupercapacitors
10.4 Hybrid supercapacitors
10.5 Hybrid metal-ion capacitors
11. Applications of supercapacitors
12. Conclusions and challenges
References
19 - Sensible thermal energy storage: diurnal and seasonal
1. Storing thermal energy
2. Design of the thermal storage and thermal stratification
2.1 Heat exchangers
2.2 Destratification in storage tanks
3. Modeling of sensible heat storage
3.1 Modeling of stratified thermal energy storage
4. Second law analysis of thermal energy storage
5. Solar thermal energy storage systems
6. Thermal storage integrated with heat pumps
7. Cold thermal energy storage
8. Seasonal storage
8.1 Applications
8.2 Storage methods
8.2.1 Large-scale tanks
8.2.2 Borehole thermal energy storage
8.2.3 Aquifers
8.2.4 Rock-bed thermal energy storage
9. Concluding remarks
References
D - Thermal storage techniques
20 - Storing energy using molten salts
1. Introduction to molten salt thermal energy storage systems
1.1 History of molten salt use as heat transfer fluid
1.2 Development of molten salt storage in the solar thermal electric sector
2. Molten salt energy storage uses
2.1 Molten salt storage for solar thermal electric parabolic trough plants
2.2 Molten salt storage for solar thermal electric tower plants
2.3 Molten salt storage for hybrid solar thermal electric and PV plants
2.4 Molten salt pumped heat electricity storage
2.5 Molten salt storage for repurposing coal plants
3. Molten salts—a medium for heat transfer and heat storage
3.1 Characteristics and properties
3.2 NaNO3 and KNO3 SQM manufacturing process
3.2.1 Mining
3.2.2 Synthetic production
3.3 Salt melting system
3.4 Outlook on molten salt media under investigation
4. Molten salt thermal storage system
4.1 Overview of the system
4.2 Operation description
4.3 Molten salt tanks and their auxiliary equipment
4.3.1 Molten salt tanks
4.3.2 Foundations
4.3.3 Insulation
4.3.4 Freeze protection system
4.3.5 Molten salt pumps
4.4 Molten salt steam generators
5. Reference plant examples
5.1 400°C molten salt storage in a commercial parabolic trough plant
5.2 565°C molten salt storage in a commercial solar tower plant
6. Conclusions and outlook
References
21 - Pumped thermal energy storage
1. Introduction
2. Rankine PTES cycle
2.1 Working principle
2.2 Research progress
3. Brayton PTES cycle
3.1 Working principle
3.2 Research progress
4. Transcritical PTES cycle
4.1 Working principle
4.2 Research progress
5. Economics of PTES
References
22 - Phase change materials
1. Introduction
1.1 Thermal energy storage
1.2 Properties of phase change materials
1.3 Sustainability
2. Heat storage at subambient temperatures
3. Heat storage at ambient temperature
4. Heat storage at moderate temperatures
4.1 Moderate-temperature PCMs
4.2 Applications of moderate-temperature PCMs
4.2.1 Solar thermal hot water
4.2.2 Seasonal heat storage
5. Heat storage at high temperatures
5.1 High-temperature PCMs
5.2 High-temperature applications
5.2.1 Concentrated solar power: Andasol
5.2.2 Industrial heat scavenging
6. Heat transfer in PCM-based thermal storage systems
7. Gaps in knowledge
8. Outlook
References
23 - Solar ponds
1. Introduction
2. Types of solar ponds
2.1 Salinity gradient solar pond (SGSP)
2.1.1 Design and construction
2.1.2 Settling the salinity gradient
2.1.3 Control and maintenance
2.1.4 Heat extraction
2.2 Saturated solar ponds
2.3 Solar gel and membrane ponds
2.4 Shallow solar pond (SSP)
3. Investment and operational cost
4. Applications of solar ponds
4.1 Industrial process heating
4.1.1 El Paso solar pond
4.1.2 Bhuj solar pond
4.1.3 Puna solar pond
4.1.4 Pyramid Hill solar pond
4.1.5 Granada solar pond at the Solvay Iberica mineral processing facility
4.2 Desalination
4.3 Electrical power production
4.4 Salinity mitigation
4.5 Other applications of solar ponds
4.5.1 Production of chemicals
4.5.2 Aquaculture and biotechnology
4.5.3 Buildings and domestic heating
References
24 - Hydrogen from water electrolysis
1. Introduction
2. Hydrogen as an energy vector and basic principles of water electrolysis
2.1 Hydrogen as an energy vector
2.2 History of water electrolysis
2.3 Electrochemistry and thermodynamics
3. Hydrogen production via water electrolysis
3.1 Water electrolysis
3.2 Alkaline water electrolysis
3.3 Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis
3.4 Solid-oxide water electrolysis
4. Strategies for storing energy in hydrogen
4.1 Properties of hydrogen related to storage
4.2 Gaseous hydrogen storage
4.3 Cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage
4.4 Cryocompressed hydrogen storage
4.5 Hydrogen storage by physisorption
4.6 Hydrogen storage by chemisorption
4.7 Power to gas
5. Technology demonstrations utilizing hydrogen as an energy storage medium
5.1 System engineering
5.2 Renewable energy storage
6. Emerging technologies and outlook
6.1 Electron coupled proton buffers and decoupling of hydrogen gas generation
6.2 Flow battery/electrolyzer hybrids
6.3 Hydrogen from sea water
7. Conclusion
References
E - Chemical storage techniques
25 - Power-to-Gas
1. Introduction
2. Dynamic electrolyzer operation as a core part of power-to-gas plants
3. The methanation processes within power-to-gas
4. Multifunctional applications of the power-to-gas system1
5. Underground gas storage in the context of power-to-gas
References
26 - Large-scale hydrogen storage
1. Hydrogen economy—from the original idea to the future concept
2. Why use hydrogen storage to compensate for fluctuating renewables?
2.1 Storage demand at various time scales
2.2 Estimate of future storage demand
2.3 Which storage technologies support capacity in the gigawatt hour range?
3. Hydrogen in the chemical industry
4. Options for large-scale underground gas storage
4.1 Overview
4.2 Depleted oil and gas fields
4.3 Aquifer storages
4.4 Salt caverns
4.5 Comparison of the storage options
5. Underground hydrogen storage in detail
5.1 Salt caverns
5.1.1 Standard engineering practice
5.1.2 Dimensioning and operational metrics of future hydrogen storage caverns
5.1.3 Supplementary research and development activities
5.2 Hydrogen storage in depleted gas reservoirs and aquifer formations
5.2.1 Experience from the underground storage of hydrogen containing town gas
5.2.2 Field test with the underground storage of a natural gas/hydrogen mixture (10% H2)
5.2.3 Lab tests and desktop studies for 100% hydrogen in depleted gas fields
5.2.3.1 Tightness and hydraulic integrity of the cap rock
5.2.3.2 Physical and geochemical reactions
5.2.3.3 Changes in transport mechanisms in the reservoir
5.2.3.4 Microbiological reactions
5.2.3.5 Technical integrity/reliability of manmade materials
5.2.4 Outlook for future hydrogen storage in natural reservoirs
References
27 - Traditional bulk energy storage—coal and underground natural gas and oil storage
1. Introduction
2. Coal
3. Oil
3.1 Salt caverns
3.1.1 Operation of oil storage salt caverns
3.1.2 Important oil storages realized in salt caverns
3.2 Rock caverns
4. Natural gas storage
4.1 Depleted oil and gas fields
4.2 Aquifer storages
4.3 Salt caverns
5. Summary
References
28 - Thermochemical energy storage
1. Introduction
2. Overview of thermochemical sorption energy storage
2.1 Adsorption energy storage
2.2 Chemisorption energy storage
2.2.1 Salt hydrate–water
2.2.2 Metal halide–ammonia
2.3 Chemisorption absorption energy storage
3. Overview of thermochemical energy storage without sorption
3.1 Hydration/dehydration
3.2 REDOX reaction
3.3 Calcination/carbonation reaction
4. Hybrid thermochemical sorption energy storage
4.1 Compressor-assisted absorption storage
4.2 Compressor-assisted adsorption storage
References
29 - Energy storage integration
1. Introduction
2. Energy policy and markets
2.1 Background
2.1.1 Regulation
2.1.2 Electricity market
2.2 Business models for using energy storage
2.3 Review of national policies, regulation, and electricity market arrangements supporting storage
2.4 Regulation, electricity markets, and their impact on storage implementation
2.4.1 Storage regulatory barriers
2.4.2 Storage market design barriers
3. Energy storage planning
3.1 Heuristic techniques
3.2 Probabilistic techniques
3.2.1 Peak shaving
3.3 Planning storage for security of supply
3.3.1 Case study
3.3.2 Potential impact of electrical energy storage
3.3.3 Effect of electrical energy storage system size
4. Energy storage operation
4.1 Balanced and unbalanced power exchange strategies
4.2 Combining energy storage and demand response
4.3 Coordination of multiple energy storage units
4.4 Summary
5. Demonstration projects
5.1 Hemsby energy storage
5.1.1 Energy storage system
5.1.2 Automatic control
5.1.3 Trial results and validation
5.1.4 Outcomes
5.2 Energy storage in the customer-led network revolution
5.2.1 Trial results
5.2.2 Outcomes
5.3 Smarter network storage
5.3.1 Trial results
5.3.2 Outcomes
6. Integrated modeling approach
6.1 Methodology
6.1.1 Lithium-ion battery model
6.1.2 Converter model
6.1.3 Network model and control algorithm
6.1.3.1 BESS control algorithm
6.2 Results and discussions
References
F - Integration
30 - Off-grid energy storage
1. Introduction: the challenges of energy storage
2. Why is off-grid energy important?
3. Battery technologies and applications
3.1 Battery technologies
3.1.1 Lead-acid (L/A) batteries
3.1.2 Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries
3.1.3 Sodium-sulfur (NaS) batteries
3.1.4 Vanadium redox (VRB) flow batteries
3.1.5 Summary table
3.2 Battery applications
4. Dealing with renewable variability
5. The emergence of mini- and microgrids
6. Energy storage in island contexts
6.1 Island of Bonaire, Netherlands
6.2 Island of Miyakojima, Japan
6.3 Island of Eigg, Scotland
7. Bring clean energy to the poor
8. The way forward: cost structure evolution
9. International examples
9.1 Developing a microgrid with racks of Pb-acid batteries: Akkan, Morocco
9.2 Developing a national policy for NaS batteries: the case of Japan
9.3 An example of new microgrid project in the West
9.4 Progress and real growth in Africa
9.5 Off-grid projects in villages
9.6 Off-grid projects in islands
10. Conclusions
References
31 - Energy storage worldwide
1. Introduction: the global energy storage market
2. Barriers to the development and deployment
3. Case studies
3.1 The situation in China
3.2 The situation in Japan
3.3 The situation in the United States
3.4 The situation in Germany
4. Lessons for the development of storage
4.1 Overcoming technological barriers
4.2 Market and regulatory developments
4.3 Legal, ownership, classification, procurement, and sustainability
4.4 Control, revenue models, and financing options
4.5 Strategic framework
5. Conclusions
References
G - International and marketing issues
32 - Storing energy in China—an overview
1. Introduction
2. Imperativeness and applications
3. Technical and development status
3.1 Pumped hydroelectric storage
3.2 Compressed air energy storage
3.3 Flywheel energy storage
3.4 Lead-acid battery
3.5 Sodium-sulfur battery
3.6 Lithium-ion battery
3.7 Flow battery
4. Summary and prospects
5. Conclusions and remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
33 - Legislation, statutory instruments and licenses for storing energy in UK
1. Introduction
2. Low-carbon policy in the UK for storage
3. Electricity markets and storage: legislation, statutory instruments, codes, and licenses
3.1 Acts of Parliament and statutory instruments relevant to energy storage
3.1.1 Planning regime applicable to storage and challenges
3.1.2 Energy storage, health and safety regime, gaps and challenges
3.1.3 Licensing regime for storage, gaps and challenges
3.2 Codes relevant for storage, gaps and challenges
4. Standards applicable to storage
5. Regulatory, legal, and market constraints that impact storage
5.1 Constraints of response services and revenues
5.2 Constraints of reserve services and revenues
5.3 Constraints of wholesale markets
6. Conclusions
References
34 - Electricity markets and regulatory developments for storage in Brazil
1. Introduction
2. Electricity market developments in Brazil: past, present, and future
3. Regulation of Brazilian electricity market
4. Distributed renewable generation: current state-of-the-art
5. Electricity storage in Brazil
5.1 State-of-the-art for electricity storage
5.2 Regulatory agenda 2020/2021
5.3 Socio-environmental aspects
6. Discussing challenges
7. Conclusions
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
W
Z
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