Stem Cells in Veterinary Science

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I: Overview and Introduction
1: Overview of Stem Cells and Their Applications in Veterinary Medicine
1.1 History of Stem Cells
1.2 Types of Stem Cells
1.3 Stem Cells of Veterinary Importance
1.4 Adult Stem Cells
1.5 Mechanisms of Stem Cell Actions
1.6 Clinical Applications of Stem Cells in Regenerative Veterinary Medicine
1.7 Conclusions
References
2: Introduction to Mammary Gland and Its Cell Types
2.1 Prenatal Development of the Mammary Gland
2.2 Postnatal Development of the Mammary Gland
2.2.1 Early Development
2.2.2 Prepubertal Development
2.3 Mammary Growth During Pregnancy
2.4 Mammary Growth During Lactation
2.5 Post-lactational Mammary Gland Involution
2.6 Gross Morphology of Ruminant Mammary Gland
2.7 Histomorphology of Mammary Gland
2.8 Types of Cells in the Mammary Gland
2.9 Mammary Epithelial Cell (MEC)
2.10 Myoepithelial Cells
2.11 Adipocytes
2.12 Mammary Stem/Progenitor Cell
References
3: Mammary Stem Cells: How Much Do We Know?
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Discovery, Isolation, and Characterization of MaSCs
3.3 Single MaSC Can Form an Entire Mammary Gland
3.4 Endocrine Regulation of MaSCs
3.5 Significance and Relevance to Dairy Animals and Humans Health
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: Methods of Identification and Characterization of Stem Cells
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Identification and Isolation of Stem Cells
4.2.1 Embryonic Stem Cells
4.2.2 Adult Stem Cells
4.3 Characterization of Stem Cells
References
5: Potential of Stem Cell Therapy to Combat Mastitis in Dairy Animals
5.1 Mastitis
5.2 Etiology of Mastitis
5.3 Mammary Gland
5.4 Structure
5.5 Effect of Mastitis on Mammary Gland Structure
5.6 Stem Cell Biology
5.7 How Does Stem Cell Technology Work to Combat?
5.8 Bovine Mammary Stem/Progenitor Cells
5.9 Caprine Mammary Stem Cells
5.10 Murine Mammary Stem Cells
5.11 Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs)
5.12 Adipose Stem Cells
5.13 Limitations
5.14 Conclusion and Future Needs
References
Part II: Stem Cells and Veterinary Research
6: Fatty Liver Disease and Utility of Stem Cells in Developing the Disease Model
6.1 Histology of Liver
6.2 Pathology of the Liver and Altered Histology
6.3 Characteristics of the Transition Period
6.4 Homoerotic Shifts in Glucose Partitioning Support Lactation
6.5 Altered Glucose Partitioning Promotes Mobilization of Energetic Reserves in Adipose Tissue
6.6 Mobilization of TAG from Adipose Tissue in the Periparturient Period
6.7 Limited Protein Intake Results in Impaired VLDL Secretion and Mitochondrial Dysfunction
6.8 The Immune System is Impaired in the Transition Period Because of Inadequate Glucose and Elevated NEFA
6.9 Impaired Hepatic Function Results in Impaired Gluconeogenesis
6.10 Early Lactation Requires Coordinated Shifts in Lipid and Glucose Metabolism
6.11 MCJ and Mitochondrial Function: Decreased Triacylglycerol Accumulation
6.12 Bovine FLD as a Model of NASH and NAFLD
6.13 In Vitro Models of NAFLD
6.14 Stem Cells as an Alternative Source of Individual-specific Hepatic Cells
6.15 Other Possible Hepatic Cell Culture Models of Bovine FLD
6.16 Conclusions
References
7: Mammary Epithelial Cells: A Potential Cellular Model to Understand the Impact of Heat Stress on Mammary Gland and Milk Prod...
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Economic Consequences of Heat Stress on Livestock Production
7.3 Heat Stress and Milk Yield
7.4 Impact of Heat Stress on Mammary Gland of Dairy Animals
7.5 Mammary Epithelial Cells as a Cellular Model to Understand the Heat Stress Response
7.6 Conclusion
References
8: Milk and Milk-Derived Stem Cells
8.1 Milk Composition
8.2 Milk Fat
8.3 Milk Protein
8.4 Minerals, Antioxidants, and Vitamins in Milk
8.5 Immunoglobulins in Milk
8.6 Milk Exosomes
8.7 Milk Probiotics
8.8 Milk-Derived Stem Cells
8.9 Therapeutic Applications of Milk-Derived Stem Cells
References
9: Cryopreservation of Testicular Stem Cells and Its Application in Veterinary Science
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Methods of Cryopreservation of Testicular Stem Cells
9.3 Freezing of Testicular Stem Cells
Box 9.1 A Suggested Protocol for Slow Freezing of Testicular Stem Cells in Mechanical Freezer
9.4 Vitrification of Testicular Stem Cells
Box 9.2 A Suggested Protocol for Vitrification of Testicular Stem Cells by SSV
9.4.1 Cryocontainers for Vitrification
9.5 Cryoprotective agents (CPA) for Freezing and Vitrification
9.6 CPA Toxicity and Strategies for Its Amelioration
9.7 Cryoinjury and Strategies for Its Amelioration
9.8 Assessing the Viability of Cryopreserved Testicular Stem Cells
9.9 Biochemical Assays
9.10 Molecular Methods
9.11 Transplantation Assays
9.12 In Vitro Spermatogenesis
9.13 Application of Testicular Stem Cell Cryopreservation
9.14 Fertility Restoration in Males with Pre- and Post-meiotic Barriers to Spermatogenesis
9.15 Male Fertility in Ageing
9.16 Posthumous Reproduction
9.17 Fertility Preservation and Restoration in Pre-pubertals with Oncological Conditions
9.18 Fertility Preservation and Restoration in Non-oncological Diseases
9.19 Animal Transgenesis and Genome Editing
9.20 Banking for Preservation and International Movement of Animal Genetic Resources
9.21 Challenges and Future Perspectives
9.22 Conclusions
References
10: Testicular Stem Cell Niche
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Histoarchitecture of Testis
10.2.1 Stroma
10.2.1.1 Testicular Coverings
10.2.1.2 Septae and Medistinum Testis
10.2.2 Parenchyma
10.2.2.1 Seminiferous Tubules
Types of Cells Within Seminiferous Tubules
10.2.2.2 Interstitial Tissue
10.2.2.3 Rete Testis
10.3 TSC Niche
10.3.1 Sertoli Cells
10.3.2 Basement Membrane of Seminiferous Tubules
10.3.3 PM Cells
10.3.4 Leydig Cells
10.3.5 Blood Vessels
10.3.6 Macrophages
10.4 Ontogeny of TSC Niche
10.5 Factors Influencing TSC Niche
10.5.1 Intrinsic Factors
10.5.1.1 Taf4b
10.5.1.2 Plzf
10.5.1.3 Chd1l
10.5.2 Extrinsic Factors
10.5.2.1 ERM/Etv5 Transcription Factor
10.5.2.2 GDNF
Ras Signalling Pathway
Src Signalling Pathway
FGFR2 Signalling Pathway
B Cell CLL/Lymphoma 6, Member B (Bcl6b)
10.5.2.3 Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 (FGF2)
10.5.2.4 Colony-Stimulating Factor 1 (CSF-1)
10.5.3 Adhesion Molecules
10.5.4 Age
10.5.5 FSH
10.6 Conclusions
References
11: Proteomics of Mammary Gland and Mammary Stem Cells
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Cell Types and Specification of the Mammary Gland
11.3 Mammary Epithelial Cells
11.4 Adipocytes
11.5 Fibroblasts
11.6 Vascular Cells and Immune Cells
11.7 Proteomics: The Ability to Study Many Proteins Together
11.8 Quality Control in MS-Based Experiments
11.9 The Proteome of Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells
11.10 MEC Secretome
11.11 Bioinformatics-Assisted Proteomics
11.12 Presence of Contaminating Proteins in Cultured Mammary Epithelial or Stem Cell Lines
11.13 Mammary Epithelial Cell-Derived Exosomes: A Proteomics Analysis
11.14 Proteomic Analysis of Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells in Diseases Like Mastitis
11.15 Mammary Stem Cells (MaSC), Their Identification, and Characterization: Role of Proteomics
11.16 Characterization of Bovine MaSCs/Progenitor Cells
11.17 The Secretome from Bovine Mammosphere-Derived Cells (MDCs)
11.18 Protein Isoforms in MSC
11.19 Chromatin Organization, Epigenomics and Protein Expression in Mammary Gland Cells
References
Part III: Therapeutic Applications
12: Advancing Quantitative Stem Cell Dosing for Veterinary Stem Cell Medicine
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Therapeutic Tissue Stem Cells in Animal Tissues
12.3 Therapeutic M[S]Cs in Veterinary Medicine
12.4 Previous Attention to Indicators of Stem Cell Dose in Veterinary M[S]C Treatments
12.5 The Tissue Stem Cell Counting Problem
12.6 A Solution for the Tissue Stem Cell Counting Problem
12.7 Benefits of Quantitative Stem Cell Dosing for Stem Cell Veterinary Medicine
12.8 Conclusions and Future Perspective
References
13: Mesenchymal Stem Cells: A Novel Therapy for the Treatment of Bovine Mastitis
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Immunomodulatory and Immunogenic Properties Suggest That Bovine MSC May Be a Useful Therapeutic Strategy for Mastitis
13.1.2 The Antibacterial Potential of Bovine Fetal Mesenchymal Stem Cells May Play a Crucial Role Against Pathogens-Causing Ma...
13.2 Safety and Efficacy of a Bovine MSCs Intramammary Therapy Against Experimentally Induced Staphylococcus aureus Clinical M...
13.3 Conclusions
References
14: Therapeutic Applications of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Canine Diseases
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Why MSCs?
14.3 Characterisation of MSCs
14.4 Potential Therapeutic Applications
14.5 Potential Applications in Musculoskeletal Tissues
14.6 Potential Applications of MSCs in Non-musculoskeletal Tissues
14.7 Miscellaneous Studies
14.8 Conclusions
References
15: Biomaterials and Scaffolds in Stem Cell Therapy
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Biomaterials and Bioscaffolds
15.2.1 Biomaterials Used in Stem Cell Culture
15.2.1.1 Natural Biomaterials in Stem Cell Culture
15.2.1.2 Synthetic Biomaterials in Stem Cell Culture
15.2.1.3 Synthetic Polymers in Stem Cell Culture
15.2.1.4 Mesh Scaffolds in Stem Cell Culture
15.3 Composite Mesh, Absorbable Synthetic Mesh, and Biological Graft
15.4 Delivery of Stem Cells Through Biomaterials
15.5 Clinical Applications of Biomaterials and Scaffolds
15.6 Conclusions
References
16: Prospects of Mesenchymal Stem Cell Secretome in Veterinary Regenerative Therapy
16.1 Introduction
16.2 MSCs Secretome or Conditioned Media (CM)
16.2.1 Extracellular Vesicles
16.3 Isolation of Conditioned Media
16.4 Isolation of Exosomes
16.5 Mechanism of CM in Wound Healing
16.6 Exosomes as Drug Delivery Agents
16.7 Clinical Applications of MSCs-CM
16.7.1 Bone Regeneration/Fracture Healing
16.7.2 Tendon and Ligament Repair
16.7.3 Repair of Nerve Injury or Paralysis
16.7.4 Wound Healing and Hair Follicle Regeneration
16.8 Conclusion
References
17: Reprogramming and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells in Porcine
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Brief History Toward the Generation of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
17.3 Basis of Reprogramming Using Genetic Factors
17.3.1 Role of Individual Factors in Reprogramming
17.3.2 Genome-Wide Sequential Events for Establishment and Maintenance of Pluripotency by OSKM Cocktail
17.3.2.1 Somatic Program Silencing
17.3.2.2 Stem Cell Program Activation
17.3.2.3 Re-organization of Chromatin Architecture
17.3.3 Kinetics of Molecular Signatures During Somatic Cell Reprogramming
17.3.4 Elite and Stochastic Models for Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Generation
17.4 Porcine-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
17.4.1 Choice of Reprogramming Factors
17.4.2 Choice of the Delivery System
17.4.3 Choice of Somatic Cells to Be Reprogrammed
17.4.4 Culture Supplementation with Special Reference to LIF and FGF2
17.4.5 Culture of iPS with or Without Feeder Cells
17.4.6 Expression of Marker Genes in Porcine iPS Cells
17.4.7 In Vitro Lineage Differentiation of Porcine iPS Cells
17.4.8 Assay for Testing Developmental Potential
17.4.8.1 Tetraploid Complementation Assay
17.4.8.2 Teratoma Formation with Porcine iPS Cells
17.4.8.3 Contribution of Porcine iPS Cells to Chimera Formation
17.4.9 Naïve Versus Primed iPS Cells
17.4.10 Other Features of Porcine iPS Cells
17.5 Therapeutic and Other Applications of Porcine iPS Cells
17.6 Concluding Remarks
References
18: CRISPR/Cas System and Stem Cell Editing: Prospects and Possibilities in Veterinary Sciences
18.1 Introduction
18.2 CRISPR/Cas as Genetic Manipulation Tool: An Overview
18.3 Urgencies of a Typical CRISPR/Cas-Based Genetic Manipulation
18.3.1 Selection of Effector Cas Protein
18.3.2 The sgRNA Designing
18.3.3 The Homology Repair Template
18.3.4 The Delivery of the CRISPR/Cas Machinery Inside the Cell
18.4 CRISPR/Cas Tools Use in Stem Cell Technologies: Applications in the Veterinary World
18.4.1 CRISPR-Based Reprogramming and Directed Differentiation of Pluripotent Stem Cells
18.4.2 CRISPR-Based Stem Cell Modulation: Scope in Veterinary Sciences
18.4.2.1 Generation of Genetically Modified Animals with Improved Productivity and Fitness
18.4.2.2 Animal Health Improvement
Disease-Resistant Transgenic Animals
Regenerative Veterinary Medicine
18.4.2.3 Animal Modeling for Biomedical Research
18.5 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Issues and Perspectives
19: Identification of Species-Specific Stem Cells and Challenges
19.1 Introduction to Stem Cells
19.2 Markers of Stem Cells
19.3 Difficulty in Identifying Stem Cells
19.4 Challenges of Stem Cell Research
19.5 Conclusions
References
20: Regulations of Animal Cell-Based Drugs in Veterinary Regenerative Medicine
20.1 Overview of FDA´s Drug Approval Process
20.2 Centre for Veterinary Medicine (CVM), USA
20.3 European Union
20.3.1 Law Governing the Implementation of New Veterinary Medicine Regulations
20.4 India´s Regulations on Animal Stem Cell Therapy
References