Sport and Exercise Psychology: Theory and Application

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
1: Introduction: Sport and Exercise Psychology—Theory and Application
1.1 World Athletes of the Year?
1.2 Sport Psychology: Definition and Subject Area
1.2.1 Describing, Explaining, Predicting, and Changing
1.2.2 Central Definitions
Side Story
1.3 Subdisciplines of Sport Psychology and Their Research Questions
1.3.1 Differentiation According to Theoretical Perspectives
1.3.2 Differentiation According to Fields of Application
Side Story
1.4 A Selective History of Sport Psychology
Side Story
1.5 Institutionalization of Sport Psychology
References
I: Cognition
2: Perception and Attention
2.1 Introduction
Study Box
2.2 Perception
Side Story
2.2.1 Peripheral Perception
2.2.2 Failures of Conscious Perception
2.2.3 Unconscious Perception
2.2.4 Perceptual Deceptions and Distortions
Side Story
Study Box
2.3 Attention
2.3.1 Selective Attention
2.3.2 Orienting of Attention
2.3.3 Divided Attention
2.3.3.1 Breadth of Attention
2.3.3.2 Internal/External Focus of Attention
2.3.4 Sustained Attention
Study Box
2.4 Trainability of Perception and Attention in Sports
Study Box
References
3: Learning and Memory in Sports
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Fundamentals of the Psychology of Learning
3.2.1 Learning by Association
3.2.1.1 Classical Conditioning
3.2.1.2 Instrumental Learning (Operant Conditioning)
3.2.1.3 Learning of Action-Effect Relations
3.2.2 Observational Learning
3.2.3 Implicit Learning
3.3 Designing Teaching and Learning Processes in Sports
3.3.1 Learning Phases and Learning Processes
3.3.2 Instruction and Feedback
3.3.2.1 Instruction: Variables of Observational Learning
3.3.2.2 Instruction: Focus of Attention
3.3.2.3 Instruction: Movement Rules and Analogies
3.3.2.4 Feedback: Timing and Frequency
3.3.2.5 Feedback: Positive and Negative Valence
3.3.3 Practice Schedules
3.3.3.1 Distributed and Massed Practice
3.3.3.2 Part Practice and Whole Practice
3.3.3.3 Practice Variability
3.3.4 Transfer of Learning
3.4 Fundamentals of Memory Psychology
3.4.1 Representation of Knowledge
3.4.2 Memory Systems
3.4.2.1 Sensory Memory (or Sensory Register)
3.4.2.2 Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)
3.4.2.3 Long-Term Memory
3.4.3 Memory Processes
3.4.3.1 Encoding
3.4.3.2 Retention
3.4.3.3 Consolidation
3.4.3.4 Retrieval
3.4.3.5 Forgetting
3.5 Representation of Motor Skills
3.5.1 Building Blocks of Complex Skills
3.5.1.1 Goal Representations and Effect Representations
3.5.1.2 Representation of Biomechanical Parameters
3.5.1.3 Basic Action Concepts (BACs)
3.5.2 Structures in Movement Representations
3.5.3 Measurement and Variability of Movement Representations
References
4: Neurocognition and Movement
4.1 Introduction
Side Story
4.2 Movement Control
Side Story
4.2.1 Hierarchically Organised Motor Control Instances
Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) by TMS
4.2.2 Motor Cortex Areas
4.2.3 Cerebellum
4.2.3.1 Anatomy and Function of the Cerebellum
4.2.4 Basal Ganglia
4.2.4.1 Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia
4.2.5 Brainstem and Spinal Cord
Differentiation-Dedifferentiation Hypothesis
4.3 Brain Anatomy and Brain Functions in Different Age Ranges
Side Story
4.3.1 Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence
Side Story
4.3.2 Brain Development in Old Age
Side Story
4.4 Neuronal Plasticity
Side Story
4.5 Physical Activity to Promote Cognition
Reflection
4.5.1 Acute Effects of Physical Activity on Cognition
Physical Frailty and Dementia
4.5.2 Chronic Effects of Physical Activity on Cognition
Side Story
4.6 Multitasking
Side Story
References
5: Judgment and Decision-Making
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Theoretical Background
5.2.1 Judgments
Side Story
5.2.1.1 Brunswik’s Lens Model
Side Story
5.2.2 Decision-Making
Side Story
5.2.2.1 Expected Utility Theory
Side Story
5.2.2.2 Heuristics
Side Story
5.2.2.3 Fast and Slow Decisions
Side Story
5.2.3 Conclusion
5.3 From Athletes to Officials: Who Makes Judgments and Decisions in Sports?
5.3.1 Athletes and Coaches
5.3.1.1 Sophomore Slump and Regression to the Mean
5.3.1.2 Passing Decisions and the Hot Hand
Side Story
5.3.2 Officials
5.3.2.1 Influence of Prior Knowledge
Study Box
5.3.2.2 Compensation Decisions
Side Story
5.3.2.3 Crowd Noise Effects
Side Story
5.3.2.4 Assimilation and Contrast
Study Box
5.3.2.5 Calibration
5.3.2.6 Offside
5.3.2.7 Conformity in Group Judgments
5.4 Optimization of Judgments and Decisions
References
6: Embodied Cognition
6.1 Introduction
Side Story
6.2 Embodied Cognition Approaches: Theoretical Framework
The Many Colors of “The Dress”
6.3 Movement and Cognition
6.3.1 Influence of Movement on Cognition
Study Box
6.3.2 Influence of Cognition on Movement
6.4 Movement and Perception
6.4.1 Theoretical Background
6.4.2 Empirical Findings in Reference to Sports
Study Box
6.4.3 Critique and Outlook
6.5 What Does Embodied Cognition Mean for Sport Psychology?
6.5.1 How Can Embodied Cognition Effects Be Specified?
6.5.2 How Can Embodied Cognition Effects Be Quantified?
6.5.3 Why Does Sport Psychology Need Embodied Cognition?
References
II: Motivation
7: Motivation and Goals in the Context of Sport and Movement
7.1 Definitions and Scope
7.1.1 Motivation
7.1.2 Incentives and Affect
7.1.3 Motivation as a Product of Person and Situation: P × S Scheme
7.1.4 Interaction of Desirability and Feasibility: Expectancy × Value
7.1.5 The Need for Motivation and Volition: The Rubicon Model of Action Phases
7.1.6 Goals and Goal Concepts
7.2 Performance-Motivated Actions and Goals in Sport
7.2.1 Achievement Goal Theory
7.2.2 Approach Versus Avoidance Goals
7.2.3 Questionnaires to Measure Goal Orientations in Sport
7.2.3.1 Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ-Sport)
7.2.3.2 Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ)
7.3 Motivational Climate
7.3.1 Questionnaires to Measure Sport Motivational Climate
7.3.2 How Does One Change the Motivational Climate in Sports Groups? Motivational Climate Intervention
7.4 Dealing with Success and Failure: Attribution Theory
7.4.1 Self-Serving Attributional Bias
7.4.2 Team-Serving Attributional Bias
7.4.3 Attribution Training
7.5 How Can Motivation for Physical Activity and Sport Be Enhanced?
7.5.1 Goal Setting Training
7.5.2 Setting the Right Goals: Self-Concordance Model
7.5.3 Setting Team Goals
7.6 When Goals Are Unattainable
7.7 Recommendations for Practice
References
8: Intrinsic Motivation in the Context of Sports
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Theoretical Frameworks on Nature and Determinants of Intrinsic Motivation
8.2.1 Flow Theory
8.2.1.1 Characteristics of Flow Experience
8.2.1.2 Consequences of Flow Experience
Side Story
8.2.1.3 Conditions of Flow Experience
Side Story
8.2.2 Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
8.2.2.1 Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Side Story
8.2.2.2 Basic Psychological Need Theory
Autonomy Support by Coaches
8.2.2.3 Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
8.2.3 Self-Concordance Theory
8.2.4 Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic Motivation
8.3 Measuring Intrinsic Motivation
8.3.1 Free Choice Paradigm
8.3.2 Questionnaires Assessing Intrinsic Motivation
8.3.2.1 Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI)
8.3.2.2 Sport Motivation Scale
8.3.2.3 Situational Motivational Scale (SIMS)
8.3.2.4 Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ)
8.4 Promoting Intrinsic Motivation in Sport
8.4.1 Strategies for Promoting Intrinsic Motivation
8.4.2 Focus: Promotion of Basic Need Satisfaction
8.4.3 Empowering Coaching™: Applying Theories Successfully for Practical Application
References
9: Implicit Motives in Sport and Exercise
9.1 Definitions and Basic Assumptions
Side Story
9.2 Implicit Motives in Motivation Research
Achievement Motive and Effort Mobilization
9.2.1 Implicit and Explicit Motives
Implicit vs. Explicit Achievement Motive and Feedback
9.2.2 Measuring Implicit Motives
9.2.3 Developmental Aspects of Implicit and Explicit Motives
9.3 Biopsychological Approaches for Implicit Motivational Processes
9.3.1 Motivational Brain Areas
Study on the Difference Between “Wanting” and “Liking” by Ikemoto and Panksepp (1996)
9.3.2 The Achievement Motive and Physiological Processes
9.3.3 The Affiliation Motive and Physiological Processes
9.3.4 The Power Motive and Physiological Processes
9.3.4.1 Chronic Health Effects of the Power Motive
9.4 Behavioral Correlates of Implicit Motives in Sport Science Research
9.4.1 Achievement Motive
Implicit and Explicit Achievement Motive and Behavior in Sport (Wegner & Teubel, 2014)
9.4.2 Affiliation Motive
9.4.3 Power Motive
9.5 Implicit Motives and Interaction with Explicit Motives and Goals
9.5.1 Motive Incongruence
9.5.1.1 Mediation Processes Between Implicit and Explicit Motives
9.6 Implications for the Field of Sport and Physical Activity
References
10: Volition in Sport and Exercise
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Theoretical Embedding of Volition
Side Story
10.2.1 Rubicon Model of Action Phases
10.2.1.1 Predecisional Phase
Side Story
10.2.1.2 Preactional Phase
Study Box
10.2.1.3 Actional Phase
10.2.1.4 Postactional Phase
10.2.1.5 Concluding Remarks
10.2.2 Theory of Action Control
10.2.2.1 State vs. Action Orientation
10.2.2.2 Empirical Findings in Sport
10.2.2.3 Concluding Remarks
10.2.3 The Strength Model of Self-Control
Study Box
10.2.3.1 Performance Under Pressure
10.2.3.2 Regular Physical Activity
Side Story
10.2.3.3 Concluding Remarks
Study Box
References
III: Emotion
11: Emotions in Sport
11.1 Introduction
Case Study Box
Side Story
Case Study Box
11.2 Universal Emotions and Culture: Darwin’s Observations on the Connection Between Emotions and Evolution
11.3 Physiology of Emotions
Side Story
11.4 The Connection Between the Physiology and the Psychology of Emotions
11.4.1 James-Lange Theory
11.4.2 Cannon-Bard Theory
11.4.3 Appraisal Theory (Lazarus-Schachter Theory)
11.5 Functions of Emotions
11.5.1 Motivation and Attention
11.5.2 Cognition
11.5.3 Social Functions of Emotions
Side Story
Study Box
11.6 Emotions and Athletic Performance
11.7 Emotion Regulation
11.8 Emotional Intelligence
11.8.1 Emotional Intelligence in Sport
11.8.2 Training of EI in and Through Sport
11.9 Measurement of Emotions and Emotional Intelligence
11.9.1 Measurement of Emotions
11.9.1.1 Inducing Emotions
Study Box
Side Story
11.9.1.2 Measuring Induced States
11.9.2 Measuring Emotional Intelligence
References
12: Anxiety in Sport
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Trigger of Anxiety in Sports
12.2.1 Sport Psychological Approach
12.2.2 Social-Psychological Approach
12.2.2.1 Audience Effects
12.2.2.2 Contingencies
12.2.2.3 Competition
12.2.2.4 Importance of the Event
Experimental Comparison of the Effect of Pressure Conditions
12.3 How Anxiety Arises in Sport
12.3.1 Attention Processes
12.3.2 Appraisal Processes
12.3.2.1 Transactional Stress Model
Effect of Stressors in Sport
Situational and Resource Appraisal in Sport
Personal and Environmental Characteristics as Moderators of Anxiety in Competition
12.3.2.2 Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes
12.3.2.3 Social Evaluation Processes
12.4 The Core: The Anxiety Response in Sport
12.4.1 Experiential Component
12.4.2 Physiological Component
12.4.3 Behaviour Component
12.4.3.1 Expressive Behaviour
12.4.3.2 Information Processing
Side Story
12.5 Effects of Anxiety in Sport
12.5.1 Anxiety and Athletic Performance
12.5.1.1 Drive
12.5.1.2 Inverted-U Hypothesis
12.5.1.3 Multidimensional Anxiety Theory
12.5.1.4 Catastrophe Theory
12.5.2 Anxiety and Movement Control
12.5.2.1 Distraction
12.5.2.2 Movement Focused Attention
12.5.2.3 Environmental and Personal Characteristics as Moderators
Mediation Versus Moderation
The Self-Presentation Model Empirically Tested
12.5.3 Other Effects of Anxiety in Sport
12.5.3.1 Physical Activity and Exercise
12.5.3.2 Risk and Safety Behaviour
12.6 Managing Anxiety in Sport
12.6.1 Coping with Anxiety
12.6.2 Anxiety Regulation
12.6.2.1 Situation
12.6.2.2 Attention
12.6.2.3 Appraisal
12.6.2.4 Anxiety Response
12.7 Regulation of Anxiety Through Sport
12.7.1 Studies About the Efficacy of Sport on Anxiety
12.7.1.1 Reduction of Anxiety in Healthy Populations
Similar Patterns of Change in Physiological and Mood Parameters as a Result of an Exercise Intervention
12.7.1.2 Sport, Physical Activity and Anxiety Disorders
12.7.2 Implication for Practice
References
IV: Personality and Development
13: Person, Situation, and Person-Situation Interaction in Sports
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 States: Conception and Assessment
Side Story
13.1.2 Person: Conception and Assessment
Side Story
13.1.2.1 Global Personality Traits
13.1.2.2 Specific Personality Traits
13.1.3 Situation: Conception and Assessment
13.2 Effects of the Person and/or Effects of the Situation?
13.2.1 Effects of the Person
Side Story
13.2.1.1 Person Effects in Sport
13.2.2 Effects of the Situation
Three Classic Social Psychological Experiments Testing Situation Effects
13.2.2.1 Situation Effects in Sports
13.2.3 Effects of the Person and Effects of the Situation
Side Story
13.3 Interactionism
Side Story
13.3.1 Effects of the Interaction of Person and Situation
13.3.1.1 Moderating Effects of the Strength of a Situation
13.3.1.2 Moderating Effects of the Trait Relevance of the Situation
Exemplary Studies
13.3.1.3 Situation-Specific Person Effects
13.3.1.4 Stable Situation Profiles: If… Then… Contingencies
Side Story
13.4 Variability of Personality
13.4.1 Consideration of Situations
13.4.2 Situation Profiles and Interaction Effects
13.5 Challenges and Implications
13.5.1 For Research
13.5.2 For Practical Applications
References
Recommended Readings
14: Personality Development Through Sport
14.1 Introduction
Side Story
Side Story
14.2 The Research Topic “Sport and Personality Development”
14.2.1 The Concept of “Personality”
14.2.1.1 Trait Concepts
14.2.1.2 Self-Concept Approaches
14.2.2 The Term “Sport”
14.2.3 The Sport and Personality (Development) Relationship
14.3 Historical Development
14.3.1 Trait Phase
On the Heterogeneity of Classical Personality Studies in German Language Sport Science
14.3.2 Post-trait Phase
14.4 Studies on Self-Concept Development Through Sport
14.4.1 Self-Concept
14.4.2 Sport-Related Self-Concept Interventions
Bern Intervention Study on School Sport (BISS)
14.4.3 Veridicality
14.5 Theoretical Considerations on the Topic of Personality Development Through Sport
References
15: Physical Activity Across the Life Span: Personality, Physical Activity, and Sedentary Behavior
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Key Concepts and Terminology
15.3 Prevalence of Physical Activity, Inactivity, and Sedentary Behavior
15.4 Personality, Health, and Physical Activity
15.4.1 Personality and Health
15.4.2 Personality, Physical Activity, and Sedentary Behavior
15.4.2.1 Personality and Physical Activity
15.4.2.2 Personality and Sedentary Behavior
15.4.3 Health Behavior as a Mediator Between Personality and Health
Side Story
The Role of Health Behavior for the Personality-Health Association
15.5 Explanations for the Personality-Physical Activity Relationship
Personality, Participation Motives, Behavioral Regulation, and Physical Activity
15.6 Personality Traits in the Context of Social-Cognitive Models
15.6.1 Theory of Planned Behavior
15.6.2 Personality Dimensions as Moderators Within the Theory of Planned Behavior
15.6.2.1 Intention-Behavior Gap
Side Story
15.7 Physical Activity Interventions Using Personality Traits
15.8 A Heuristic Model of Personality, Physical Activity Behavior, and Health Across the Life Span
Side Story
References
V: Social Processes
16: Group Performance
16.1 Introduction
16.2 What Accounts for a Group?
16.2.1 Definition of a Group
16.2.2 Different Types of Groups and Group Tasks
16.3 Theoretical Approaches to Groups and Group Performance
16.3.1 Model of Small Group Development
16.3.2 A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Sport Teams
16.4 Performance Gains and Losses in Groups
Study Box
16.4.1 Performance Losses in Groups: Social Loafing
Study Box
16.4.2 Performance Gains in Groups
16.4.2.1 The Köhler Effect
Side Story
16.4.2.2 Social Compensation
16.4.3 Theoretical Explanations for Performance Losses and Gains in Groups
16.4.3.1 Theoretical Explanations of Performance Losses
16.4.3.2 Theoretical Explanations of Performance Gains in Groups
16.4.3.3 The “Collective Effort Model”: Integration of Theoretical Approaches
Study Box
16.5 Group-Related Phenomena Affecting Group Performance
Side Story
16.5.1 Motivational Climate
Side Story
16.5.2 Leadership Structure Within the Team
16.5.3 Role Ambiguity
Side Story
16.5.4 Social Identity
Side Story
16.5.5 Identification with the Team
16.5.6 Group Cohesion
Side Story
16.5.7 Collective Efficacy
Digression
16.5.8 Team Trust
16.6 Diagnostics of Performance-Relevant Group Processes
16.6.1 Overview of Available Instruments
16.6.2 Diagnosing the Needs of the Team
References
17: Social Influence of Sport Spectators
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Forms of Social Influence of Spectators
17.3 Social Facilitation: Social Influence of Passive Spectators
Study Box
Study Box
17.4 Home Advantage and Disadvantage: Social Influence of Active Spectators
Study Box
Side Story
Side Story
17.5 Final Remarks
References
18: Interaction and Communication
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Social Interaction
18.2.1 Social Exchange Theories
Side Story
18.2.2 Social Interaction in Sport
18.2.3 Coach-Athlete Interaction
Study Box
18.3 Basics Principles of Communication
Side Story
18.4 Communication in Competitive Sports
18.4.1 Securing Understanding
18.4.2 Control Strategies
18.4.3 Conflict Regulation
18.4.4 Moral Communication
18.4.5 Participation
18.4.6 Recommendations for the Transmitter
18.4.7 Recommendations for Recipients and Feedback Providers
References
19: The Self in Sport and Exercise
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
19.2.1 Multidimensional and Hierarchical Self Structure
19.2.2 Linking Sport and Exercise Participation and Self-Esteem
How Strong is the Support for the Self-Enhancement Hypothesis?
19.2.3 In Summary
19.3 Self-Presentation
Side Story
19.4 Self-Conscious Emotions
19.4.1 Emotions Specific to the Physical Self
19.4.2 Anticipated and Experienced Emotions
19.5 A Cultural Perspective on the Self
Cultural Differences in Child Rearing
19.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks
References
VI: Competitive Sport
20: Self-Regulation in Competitive Sports
20.1 The Function of Self-Regulation in Competitive Sports
20.2 Definition of Self-Regulation
20.3 Origins of the Psychological Concept of Self-Regulation
20.4 Self-Regulation Skills and Techniques
20.4.1 Naïve Self-Regulation Techniques
20.4.2 Self-Regulation and Self-Control: Two Fundamental Modes
20.5 Development of Self-Regulation: How to Develop and Train the Will Muscle
Development of Self-Regulation Skills in Young Athletes
20.5.1 Individual Differences in Self-Regulation
20.6 Applied Perspectives: Mental Skills Training
20.6.1 Activation Regulation: The Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning
20.6.2 Stress-Recovery Balance: Getting Physical and Psychological Rest
20.6.3 Goal Setting as Self-Regulation: A Motivational Technique
20.6.4 Imagination and Imagination Training: Programming Successful Performance
20.6.5 Routines: Helping to Prepare and Focus
20.6.6 Embodiment: How the Body Affects the Mind
20.6.7 Self-Talk Regulation: Optimizing the Inner Dialogue
20.6.8 Mindfulness Training: An Alternative Avenue to Strengthen Self-Regulation
20.6.9 Music as a Self-Regulation Strategy: Marching to Your Own Rhythm
20.6.10 Emotion Regulation: Prevention Is Better Than Cure
Side Story
20.7 Concluding Remarks
References
21: Cognitive Training in Sports
21.1 Sport Psychology in the Practice of Competitive Sports
21.2 Dual Systems Theory by Kahneman
Study Box
Side Story
21.2.1 Fast and Slow Thinking in Elite Sports
21.2.1.1 Interplay of Fast and Slow Thinking
21.2.2 Competence Conviction
21.3 Methods of Cognitive Training
21.3.1 Mental Training
21.3.1.1 Mental Training to Optimize the Competence Conviction
21.3.1.2 Mental Training to Optimize the Learning and Automation Process of Actions
21.3.1.3 Practice
21.3.2 Self-Talk Regulation
21.3.2.1 Empirical Evidence
21.3.2.2 Practice
21.3.3 Gaming
21.3.3.1 Effects of Gaming on Executive Functions
21.3.3.2 Transfer
Improving the Pass Decision Through 3D Object Tracking Training
21.4 Conclusion
References
22: Applying Group Dynamics to Enhance Sport Teams
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Introducing Team Development
Side Story
22.2.1 Defining Team Development Interventions
22.2.2 Reaching Further Afield to Understand Team Development
22.2.3 Five Key Considerations When Developing Teams
22.2.3.1 When Will Team Development Be Implemented?
22.3 Applying Models Describing How Groups Develop
22.4 Conclusion
References
23: Talent Identification and Development in Sport
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 Ability and Expertise
23.2 Conceptual Approaches to Talent Research in Sport
Side Story
Side Story
Study Box
23.3 Frameworks of Talent Research
23.3.1 Giftedness Research
23.3.1.1 Munich Model of Giftedness (MMG)
23.3.1.2 Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT)
23.3.2 Expertise Research
23.3.2.1 Deliberate Practice
23.3.2.2 Deliberate Play
23.4 Talent Identification
23.4.1 Cognitive Performance Factors
23.4.1.1 Expert Performance Approach
23.4.1.2 Cognitive Component Skill Approach
Study Box
23.4.2 Personality-Related Factors
23.4.2.1 General Personality Traits
23.4.2.2 Specific Psychological States
23.4.2.3 Specific Psychological Personality Dispositions
Study Box
23.5 Talent Development
23.5.1 Cognitive Performance Factors
23.5.1.1 Small-Sided Games
23.5.1.2 Video-Based Training
23.5.1.3 Discovery Learning
23.5.1.4 Pre-orientation Through Adequate Field of View Alignment (Visual Exploratory Activity)
23.5.2 Personality-Related Factors
23.5.2.1 General Personality Traits
Side Story
23.5.2.2 Specific Personality Dispositions and Competencies
23.6 Conclusion and Further Discussion
23.6.1 Talent Identification
23.6.2 Talent Development
References
24: Sleep, Recovery and Rest
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Sleep
24.2.1 Measuring Sleep in the Laboratory and in the Field
24.2.2 Sleep Over the Life Span
24.2.3 Sleep in Athletes
24.2.3.1 Sleep During Training Periods
24.2.3.2 Sleep During Competitions
24.2.4 Behavioral Strategies to Promote Sleep
24.3 Recovery
24.3.1 Conceptualization of Recovery
24.3.2 The Interrelation of Recovery and Stress in Sport
Rowing Over the Edge: Non-functional Overreaching and Overtraining Syndrome as Maladjustment: Diagnosis and Treatment from a Psychological Perspective
24.3.3 Assessing and Monitoring Recovery and Stress States
Monitoring the Athlete Training Response: Subjective Measures Trump Commonly Used Objective Measures
24.3.4 Recovery Management in Sport
Acute Effects of Psychological Relaxation Techniques Between Two Physical Tasks
24.4 Rest
24.4.1 Delimiting the Focus on the Psychology of Rest in Athletes
24.4.1.1 Rest and Its Relations to Athlete Recovery
24.4.1.2 Rest and Its Relations to Acquiring Movement Skills
24.4.1.3 Rest and Its Relations to the Development of Expert Sports Performance
24.4.2 The Eccles-Kazmier Model of the Psychology of Rest in Athletes
24.4.2.1 An Athlete’s Current Level of Rest and the Process of Resting
24.4.2.2 Implications of the Eccles-Kazmier Model for Theory
24.4.3 Why Has Rest Been Overlooked?
24.4.4 Implications for Practice
Conclusions
References
VII: Exercise and Health
25: Models to Explain and Change Health Behavior and Physical Activity
25.1 Motivation Models
25.1.1 Theory of Planned Behavior
25.1.2 Health Belief Model
25.1.3 Social-Cognitive Theory
Side Story
25.2 Theories of Action Execution
Action Plans and Coping Plans
Study Box
25.3 Stage and Process Models
25.3.1 Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change
25.3.2 Health Action Process Approach
25.3.3 Motivation-Volition Process Model
25.4 Dual-Process Theories of Physical Activity Behavior and Integrated Models of Health Behavior
25.4.1 Affective-Reflective Theory of Physical Inactivity and Exercise
25.4.2 The Physical Activity Adoption and Maintenance Model
25.4.3 Integrated Models of Health Behavior
25.5 General Conclusion
Side Story
References
26: Physical Activity, Subjective Well-Being and Mental Health
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Psychological Dimensions of Health and Well-Being
26.2.1 Basic Definitions of Health and Health Models
Side Story
Side Story
26.2.2 Elements of Subjective Well-Being and Mental Health
26.2.2.1 Subjective Well-Being: Definition and Scope
26.2.2.2 Differentiation of Well-Being According to Temporal and Content-Related Aspects
26.2.2.3 Physical Well-Being
26.2.2.4 Social Well-Being
26.2.2.5 Hedonistic and Eudemonistic Concepts of Subjective Well-Being
26.3 Effects of Physical Activity on Well-Being and Mental Health
26.3.1 A Heuristic Framework
26.3.2 Research Overview on the Effects of Physical Activity on Well-Being and Mental Health
26.3.2.1 Affective Well-Being
Immediate Effects of Single Sessions of Structured Physical Exercise
Effects of Multi-Week Exercise Programs
Study Box
26.3.2.2 Additional Components of Well-Being and Ill-Being
Life Satisfaction
Physical Well-Being
Social Well-Being
26.3.2.3 Physical Activity and Well-Being in Everyday Life
26.4 Explanatory Approaches
Study Box
26.4.1 Dual-Mode Theory
26.4.2 Hypofrontality Hypothesis
26.5 Summary and Perspectives
References
27: Sports, Stress, and Health
27.1 Introduction: Stress and Its Societal Relevance
27.2 Key Terms
27.3 Stress Models
27.3.1 Reaction-Focused Models
27.3.2 Stimulus-Focused Models
27.3.3 Cognitive-Transactional Models
27.3.4 The Reserve-Capacity Model
27.3.5 Work-Related Models
27.4 Physiological Stress Reactions
27.5 Stress-Related Health Consequences
27.5.1 Stress and Mortality
27.5.2 Stress and Physical Health
Side Story
27.5.3 Stress and Psychological Health
Side Story
27.6 Stress Regulation and Sports
27.7 Stress Regulation Through Sports
27.7.1 Are Physically Active People Less Stressed, or Does Stress Lead to Reduced Physical Activity?
Study Box: The Influence of Stress on People’s Physical Activity Behavior: A Meta-Analysis
27.7.2 Can Physical Activity in Times of Stress Protect Against Negative Health Consequences?
Side Story
Side Story
Study Box: Fitness-Related Stress Buffer Effects
27.7.3 Can Physical Activity, Exercise, and Sports Prevent and Treat Burnout?
27.7.4 Can Sports Play a Role in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?
27.8 Stress Regulation in Performance Sports
27.8.1 Causes of Stress in Elite Sports
27.8.2 The Importance of Recovery in Elite Sports
27.8.3 Burnout in Athletes
27.8.4 Stress and Injury in Elite Sports
27.8.5 Sports and Exercise Addiction
27.8.6 Stress Management Training: Approaches for Everyday Life and Performance Sports
References
28: Exercise, Health Disorders, and Injuries
28.1 Introduction
Side Story
28.2 Exercise as Intervention and Rehabilitation in Health Disorders
28.2.1 Exercise as Intervention for Persons with Mental Disorders
28.2.1.1 Depressive Disorders
28.2.1.2 Anxiety Disorders
28.2.1.3 Mental and Behavioral Disorders Due to Psychoactive Substance Use
Study Box
28.2.1.4 Potential Mechanisms
28.2.2 Exercise for Persons with Physical Health Disorders
28.2.2.1 Cardiovascular Diseases
28.2.2.2 Oncological Diseases
28.2.2.3 Chronic Respiratory Diseases
28.2.2.4 Other Physical Health Disorders
28.3 Exercise: Risks and Side Effects
28.3.1 Exercise and Mental Risks
28.3.1.1 Eating Disorders
28.3.1.2 Exercise Dependence
28.3.1.3 Substance Use
28.3.2 Exercise and Physical Risks
28.3.2.1 Injuries
28.3.2.2 Sudden Cardiac Death
28.3.2.3 Impaired Immune Function
28.3.2.4 Female Athlete Triad
28.4 Conclusion
References
Index