Sodium-Ion Batteries: Materials, Characterization, and Technology, Volumes 1 & 2

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Sodium-Ion Batteries: Materials, Characterization, and Technology, 2 Volumes
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Contents: Volume 1
Contents: Volume 2
Preface
Part I. Anodes
1. Graphite as an Anode Material in Sodium-Ion Batteries
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Graphite and Graphite Intercalation Compounds (GICs)
1.3 Graphite as Negative Electrode in LIBs and SIBs
1.3.1 Graphite in Lithium-Ion Batteries, Li-rich b-GICs
1.3.2 Problems in Using Graphite in Sodium-Ion Batteries (The Lack of Na-rich b-GICs)
1.3.3 Solution to Use Graphite in Sodium-Ion Batteries (Utilizing Na-rich t-GICs)
1.4 Recent Development in Using Graphite for SIBs
1.4.1 Lattice and Electrode Expansion During Cycling
1.4.2 Influence of the Electrolyte
1.4.3 Influence of Temperature
1.4.4 Physicochemical Properties
1.4.5 Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI)
1.4.6 Increasing the Capacity
1.5 Outlook
References
2. Hard Carbon Anodes for Na-Ion Batteries
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Structure Characteristics of Hard Carbons
2.3 Characterization of Hard Carbon Materials for Na-Ion Batteries
2.3.1 Determining the Carbon Interlayer Spacing and the Degree of Disorder
2.3.2 Characterizations of Defects
2.3.3 Porosity Characterization
2.3.4 Surface Composition and Electrode–Electrolyte Interface Characteriz
2.3.5 Other In/Ex Situ Characterization Techniques to Elucidate Structure–Performance Correlations
2.4 Sodium Storage Mechanisms in Hard Carbons
2.5 Types of Hard Carbon Anodes for Na-Ion Batteries
2.5.1 Biomass-Derived Hard Carbons
2.5.2 Heteroatom-Doped Hard Carbons
2.5.2.1 Nitrogen Doping
2.5.2.2 Boron, Sulfur, and Phosphorus Doping
2.5.2.3 Oxygen Doping
2.5.2.4 Multiatom Doping
2.5.3 Other Hard Carbons
2.5.4 The Combination of Hard and Soft Carbons
2.6 Conclusions and Outlook
References
3. Alloy Anodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Challenges Faced by Alloy-Typed Anodes
3.2.1 Volume Expansion
3.2.2 Unstable Solid Electrolyte Interphase Layer
3.2.3 Voltage Hysteresis
3.2.4 Elucidation of the Electrochemical Reaction Mechanisms
3.3 Strategies Toward High-Performance Alloy Anodes
3.3.1 Nanostructuring
3.3.2 Morphological and Electrode Architectural Control
3.3.3 Structural Engineering
3.3.4 Surface Engineering
3.3.5 Hybrid Composite Design
3.4 Modification of Alloy Anodes
3.4.1 Phosphorus
3.4.1.1 Red Phosphorus
3.4.1.2 Black Phosphorus
3.4.2 Silicon
3.4.3 Tin
3.4.4 Germanium
3.4.5 Antimony
3.4.6 Bismuth
3.4.7 Intermetallic Compounds
3.5 Summary and Outlook
References
Part II. Cathodes
4. Sodium Layered Oxide Cathode Materials
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Structure Types
4.1.2 High-Voltage Nickel-Based Sodium Layered Oxides
4.1.2.1 Introduction
4.1.2.2 Unary Ni Layered Oxides
4.1.2.3 Binary Ni/Fe-Based Layered Oxides
4.1.2.4 Binary Ni/Mn-Based Layered Oxides
4.1.2.5 Conclusions and Outlook
4.1.3 Low-Cost Mn and Fe-Based Sodium Layered Oxides
4.1.3.1 Introduction
4.1.3.2 Unary Mn and Fe Layered Oxides
4.1.3.3 Binary Mn/Fe-Based Layered Oxides
4.1.3.4 Doped Binary Mn/Fe Layered Oxides
4.1.3.5 Conclusions and Outlook
4.1.4 Layered Oxides with Anionic Redox Reactions
4.1.4.1 Introduction
4.1.4.2 Structural Approaches to Enhance Oxygen Redox and Its Reversibility
4.1.4.3 Conclusions
4.1.5 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
5. Phosphate-Based Polyanionic Sodium-Ion Electrode Materials
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Phosphate-Based Electrode Materials
5.2.1 Sodium Transition Metal Phosphates (PO43−)
5.2.2 Sodium Transition Metal Metaphosphates (PO43−)3
5.2.3 Sodium Transition Metal Pyrophosphate (P2O74−)
5.2.4 Sodium Transition Metal Oxyphosphate (OPO4)
5.2.5 Sodium Transition Metal Fluorophosphates
5.2.5.1 NaMPO4F (M= V)
5.2.5.2 Na2MPO4F (M= Fe, Mn, Co, Ni,)
5.2.6 Sodium-Fluorinated Vanadium Oxyphosphates Na3V2(PO4)2F3−xOx (0 ≤ x2)
5.2.7 Sodium Transition Metal Nitridophosphates Na2MII2(PO3)3N and Na3MIII(PO3)3N
5.3 Mixed Polyanion-Based Electrode Materials
5.3.1 Mixed Transition Metal Phosphates–Pyrophosphates [(PO4)(P2O7)]
5.3.1.1 Na4M3(PO4)2P2O7
5.3.1.2 Na7M4(P2O7)4PO4
5.3.2 Mixed Transition Metal Carbonates–Phosphates [(CO3)(PO4)]
5.4 Summary and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
6. Prussian Blue Electrodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Structural and Bonding
6.3 Factors Affecting Electrochemical Behavior
6.3.1 Structural Transitions
6.3.2 Vacancies and Water
6.4 Synthetic Strategies
6.4.1 Solution Precipitation Method
6.4.2 Hydrothermal Method/Solvothermal
6.4.3 Electrodeposition
6.5 Aqueous SIBs
6.5.1 Single Redox PBAs
6.5.2 Multielectron Redox PBAs
6.5.3 All PBA Full Aqueous SIBs (ASIBs)
6.6 Non-aqueous SIBs
6.6.1 NaxM[Fe(CN)6] – Single Redox Site
6.6.2 NaxM[Fe(CN)6] – Multiredox Sites
6.6.3 NaxM[A(CN)6] – Changing C-Coordinated Metal
6.7 Commercial Feasibility
6.8 Challenges and Future Directions
References
Part III. Advanced Characterization of Na-Ion Battery Electrodes
7. Understanding Na-Ion Batteries on the Atomic Scale Through Operando X-ray and Neutron Scattering
7.1 The Importance and Advantages of Operando Studies
7.2 Operando Powder X-ray Diffraction
7.2.1 Choice of X-ray Source and Detector
7.2.2 Design of Operando PXRD Cells
7.2.3 Constructing the Na-Ion Battery Stack for Operando PXRD Studies
7.2.4 PXRD Data Analysis
7.3 Examples of Operando PXRD Studies of Na-Ion Batteries
7.4 Other Operando Techniques Providing Structural Information
7.4.1 Powder Neutron Diffraction
7.4.2 Total Scattering and Pair Distribution Function Analysis of Local Atomic Structures
References
8. NMR Investigations of Sodium-Ion Batteries
8.1 Introduction
8.2 NMR Interactions for Battery Materials
8.2.1 The Quadrupolar Interaction
8.2.2 The Paramagnetic Interaction
8.2.3 The Knight Shift
8.3 Acquisition of NMR Spectra of Battery Materials
8.3.1 Magic Angle Spinning
8.3.2 Ex situ NMR of Battery materials
8.3.3 In situ/Operando NMR Measurement of Electrochemical cells
8.4 Examples
8.4.1 Na Insertion into Carbon-based Anodes
8.4.1.1 Formation and Dynamics of Ternary Na–Diglyme Graphite Intercalation Compounds
8.4.1.2 Determining the Sodiation Mechanism of Hard Carbons
8.4.2 Solid-State NMR Investigations of Cathode Materials
8.4.2.1 Intergrowth Structure and Evolution in β-NaMnO2
8.4.2.2 Na (de)insertion in Na3V2(PO4)2F3
8.4.3 Degradation of NaPF6-based Electrolytes
8.5 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
9. Computational Studies on Na-Ion Electrode Materials
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Density Functional Theory and Molecular Dynamics Simulations
9.2.1 Approximations in DFT Simulations
9.2.2 Adsorption and Intercalation Energy
9.2.3 Phase Stability
9.2.4 Voltage Profile
9.2.5 Sodium Migration and Diffusion
9.3 Cathode Materials
9.3.1 Layered Cathode Materials
9.3.2 Sodium-Polyanionic Cathode Materials
9.3.3 Prussian Blue Analogues
9.4 Anode Materials
9.4.1 Carbon-based Anode Materials
9.4.2 2D Anode Materials
9.4.3 Layered Anode Materials
9.4.4 Alloying NIB Anodes
9.5 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
10. Pair Distribution Function Analysis of Sodium-Ion Batteries
10.1 Introduction to Total-Scattering and the Pair Distribution Functio
10.1.1 Conventional Crystallographic Analysis and Total-Scattering
10.1.2 The Pair Distribution Function
10.1.3 Experimental Methods to Obtain the Pair Distribution Function
10.1.4 Data Collection Methods for Battery Materials
10.1.4.1 Sample Containers for X-ray PDF Analysis
10.1.4.2 Experimental Strategies
10.2 Analyzing the Pair Distribution Function
10.2.1 Model-Independent Analyses
10.2.1.1 Parametric Studies and Differential PDFs (dPDFs)
10.2.2 Modeling the PDF
10.2.2.1 Small-Box Modeling
10.2.2.2 Big-Box Modeling
10.3 Pair Distribution Function Analysis of Sodium-Ion Battery Material
10.3.1 Hard Carbon Anodes
10.3.2 Tin Anodes
10.3.3 Antimony Anodes
10.3.4 Local Cation Order in Na(Ni2/3Sb1/3)O2
10.3.5 Birnessite Materials
10.3.6 Electrolytes
10.4 Future Horizons for Pair Distribution Function Analysis of Sodium-Ion Batteries
References
Part IV. Electrolytes
11. Ester- and Ether-Based Electrolytes for Na-Ion Batteries
11.2 Ester-Based Electrolytes for NIBs
11.3 Ether-Based Electrolytes for NIBs
11.4 Summary and Perspectives
References
12. Ionic Liquid and Polymer-Based Electrolytes for Sodium Battery Applications
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Na-Ion-Based Ionic Liquid Electrolytes
12.2.1 The Chemistry and Physicochemical Properties of IL Electrolytes
12.2.2 IL Electrolytes Application in Na Secondary Batteries
12.2.3 Interfacial Studies of Sodium-Ion Secondary Batteries Using IL Electrolytes
12.3 Solid Gel Polymer Electrolytes
12.4 Molecular Simulation of Na Battery Electrolytes
12.4.1 Physicochemical Properties of the Sodium Ion
12.4.2 Superconcentrated Ionic Liquids for Na Batteries
12.4.3 Polyelectrolytes for Na Batteries
12.4.3.1 Single-Ion Conductor
12.4.3.2 Polymeric Ionic Liquids (PolyIL)
12.5 Summary and Perspectives
Abbreviations
References
13. Sodium-ion-conducting Oxides Used as Solid Electrolytes in Sodium Batteries – Learning from the Past
13.1 Introduction
13.2 ? and ?′′-Alumina
13.3 NaSICON Materials
13.4 Na5YSi4O12-Type Silicates
13.5 Ionic Conductivity
13.6 Thermal Expansion
13.7 Microstructure and Processing
13.8 Recent and Current Trends in Battery Development
13.9 Summary and Outlook
References
14. Polymers in Sodium-Ion Batteries
I Polymers in sodium-ion battery electrodes
14.1 Introduction to Battery Electrodes
14.2 Polymers as Active Materials
14.2.1 Polymers with Carbonyl Functional Groups
14.2.1.1 Polyimides
14.2.1.2 Polyquinones
14.2.2 Schiff Base Polymers
14.2.3 Conductive Polymers
14.2.4 Organic Radical Polymers
14.2.5 Redox-Active Covalent Organic Frameworks
14.2.6 Summary of Polymers as Active Materials
14.3 Polymers as Precursors for Active Materials
14.4 Polymers as Binders
14.4.1 Role of the Binder
14.4.1.1 Sustainable Alternatives to PVDF
14.4.2 Binding Mechanism
14.4.3 Binder Properties
14.4.3.1 Thermal Properties
14.4.3.2 Mechanical Properties
14.4.3.3 Electronic and Ionic Conductivity
14.4.3.4 Chemical Stability
14.4.3.5 Electrochemical Stability
14.4.4 Binders for Cathodes
14.4.5 Binders for Anodes
14.4.5.1 Hard Carbon
14.4.5.2 Alloying Anodes
14.4.5.3 Conversion Anodes
14.4.6 Advanced Binder Strategies
14.4.6.1 Conductive Binders
14.4.6.2 Self-Healing Binders
14.4.6.3 Redox-Active Binders
14.4.6.4 Composite Binders
14.4.7 Summary of Polymers as Binders
II Polymers in electrode–electrolyte Na-ion battery interfaces
14.5 Interfacial Design Considerations
14.6 Polymeric Additives and Oligomerization of Molecules in Electrolytes
14.7 Polymer Interfaces on Na-metal Electrodes
14.8 In situ Polymeric and Composite ASEIs
14.9 Insertion of Interfacial Polymeric Layers
III Polymers in sodium-ion battery electrolytes
14.10 An Overview on Electrolytes
14.11 Polymeric Separators
14.12 Polymer Electrolytes
14.12.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes
14.12.2 Composite Polymer Electrolytes
14.12.3 Organogel and Ionogel Polymer Electrolytes
14.12.4 Biopolymer Electrolytes
14.12.5 Ionic Polymers: Polyanions and Crosslinked Ionomers
IV All-polymer sodium-ion batteries
V Concluding Remarks
References
Part V. Safety and Other Practical Aspects
15. Sodium-Ion Batteries: Aging, Degradation, Failure Mechanisms and Safety
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Aging (Cycle Life and Calendar)
15.3 Component Shelf Life and Stability
15.3.1 Cathode Compositions
15.3.2 Electrolytes
15.4 Cell Performance and Lifetime
15.4.1 Interface Stability (Anode and Cathode)
15.4.1.1 The Solid–Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) in Hard Carbon Na-Ion System
15.4.1.2 The Cathode–Electrolyte Interphase (CEI) in Na-Ion Systems
15.4.1.3 The Use of Additives to Assist SEI and CEI Formation
15.4.2 Electrolyte Stability
15.4.3 Degradation of Electrode Materials
15.4.3.1 Anode Materials
15.4.3.2 Cathode Materials
15.4.3.3 Particle and Electrode Cracking and Delamination – Active Material Loss
15.4.3.4 Degradation of the Binder
15.4.4 Separator Degradation
15.5 Safety Aspects
15.5.1 The Effect of Degradation on Cell Safety and Abuse Tolerance
15.5.1.1 Breakdown of the Electrode–Electrolyte Interfaces
15.5.1.2 Thermal Stability of the Electrolyte
15.5.2 Cell Failure and Abuse Tolerance
15.5.2.1 Dendritic Growth
15.5.2.2 Electrolyte Voltage Stability
15.5.2.3 Overcharge of the Cell
15.5.2.4 Thermal Stability of the Cathode
15.5.2.5 Thermal Runaway: Comparison Between Na-Ion and Li-Ion Systems
15.5.2.6 Short Circuit
15.5.2.7 Electrolyte Flammability – Flame Retardant Additives
15.5.3 Safe Transportation
15.6 Summary
References
16. Practical Application of Room Temperature Na-Ion Batteries
16.1 Milestone of the Na-Ion Battery Technology Research
16.2 The State of the Art of the Companies for Sodium-Ion Batteries
16.2.1 European Companies
16.2.2 US Companies
16.2.3 Chinese Companies
16.2.4 Japanese Companies
16.3 Comparison of the Na-Ion Batteries with Other Rechargeable Batteries and Potential Markets
16.4 Specific Requests for the Potential NIBs Products with Different
16.5 The Limited and Uneven Distributed Li Resource
16.6 The Global Support from Government for NIBs’ Commercialization
16.6.1 The Europe
16.6.2 United States
16.6.3 China
16.7 Brief Summary and Outlook
References
17. On the Environmental Competitiveness of Sodium-Ion Batteries – Current State of the Art in Life Cycle Assessment
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Background
17.1.2 Life Cycle Assessment
17.2 Environmental Impacts of LIBs and SIBs, State of the Art
17.2.1 Current Environmental Issues and LCA Studies Related to LIBs
17.2.2 State of the Art of Environmental Performance of SIB
17.3 Update of Existing Life Cycle Assessment of SIB
17.3.1 Assessment Framework
17.3.2 Battery Model
17.3.3 LCA Results
17.4 Discussion
17.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Part VI. Other Na Based Technologies
18. High-Power Sodium-Ion Batteries and Sodium-Ion Capacitors
18.1 Sodium-Ion Batteries and High-Power Application
18.1.1 Anodic Materials for NIBs
18.1.2 Cathodic Materials for NIBs
18.2 Sodium-Ion Capacitors (NICs)
18.3 Electrolytes in High-Power Systems
18.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
19. Rechargeable Seawater Batteries
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Basics of Rechargeable Seawater Batteries
19.2.1 History of Seawater Batteries
19.2.2 Working Principle and Battery Components
19.2.3 Cathode Reaction
19.2.3.1 Oxygen Evolution Reaction
19.2.3.2 Oxygen Reduction Reaction
19.2.3.3 Parasitic Reaction: Chlorine Reaction
19.3 Materials for Rechargeable Seawater Batteries
19.3.1 Cathode
19.3.1.1 Current Collector
19.3.1.2 OER/ORR Catalyst
19.3.1.3 Non-OER/ORR Cathode Materials
19.3.2 Solid Electrolyte
19.3.3 Anode
19.3.3.1 Anode Materials
19.3.3.2 Anolyte Materials
19.4 Battery Fabrication and Application
19.4.1 Coin Cell Design
19.4.2 Square Cell and Module Design
19.4.3 Applications
19.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives
19.5.1 Cathode
19.5.2 Solid Electrolyte
19.5.3 Anode
19.5.4 Cell Production
Acknowledgment
Refrences
20. Sodium Solid-state Batteries
20.1 Energy Density
20.2 Power Density
20.3 Safety
20.4 Long-term Stability
20.5 Anion and Mobile Cation Sublattices
20.6 Ionic Mobility in ISEs
20.6.1 Fundamental Equations of Electrical Conductivity
20.6.2 Migration Pathways in ISEs
20.6.3 From Random Walk Theory to an Arrhenius-type Relationship for Conductivity
20.7 Designing Superionic Conductors
20.7.1 Increasing the Ionic Conductivity by Increasing the Defect Concentration
20.7.2 A Paradox: Why Lowering the Energy Barrier for Migration Does Not Always Result in a Higher Ionic Conductivity?
20.7.3 Toward a More General Concept of Mobile Cation Frustration
20.8 Ionic Conductivity at the Micro-/Mesocale
20.8.1 Polycrystalline ISEs
20.8.2 Impedance Spectroscopy of ISEs
20.9 Electrode|ISE Interfacial Stability
20.9.1 Electrochemical Reactions
20.9.1.1 Electrochemical Stability Window
20.9.1.2 Interface/Interphase Types
20.9.1.3 Protecting/Buffer Layers and Alloys
20.9.2 Chemical Reactions
20.10 Interfacial Resistance
20.11 Dynamics of Metal Anode|ISE Interfaces Under Stripping Conditions
20.11.1 Experimental Evidence of Interfacial Contact Loss During Stripping
20.11.2 Theoretical Models of Stripping
20.11.2.1 Self-diffusion of Vacancies
20.11.2.2 Energetics Approach
20.11.3 Solutions to Prevent Void Formation
20.11.3.1 Interlayers
20.11.3.2 Pressure
20.11.3.3 3D Interfaces
20.12 Dynamics of Metal Anode|ISE Interfaces Under Plating Conditions
20.13 Mechanical Stability of Cathode|ISE Interfaces
20.13.1 Mechanical Properties of the Adjoining Phases
20.13.2 Microstructure, Processing Route, and Hybridization of the Cathode Composite
20.14 Oxide ISEs
20.14.1 Na-?/?′′-aluminas
20.14.2 NaSICONs
20.14.3 Advantages and Challenges Associated with Oxide ISEs
20.15 Sulfides and Selenides
20.15.1 Advantages and Challenges Associated with Sulfide/Selenide ISEs
20.16 Hydroborates and Derivatives
20.17 Halides
20.18 Summary
References
Index