Snow Leopards, 2e

Front Cover
Snow Leopards: Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Editor Biographies
Foreword
Introduction
The ecological and scientific context
Approaches to snow leopard conservation practice
Into the future
References
Preface
Section I: Defining the snow leopard
Chapter 1: What is a snow leopard? Taxonomy, morphology, and phylogeny
Introduction
Taxonomic history and geographical variation
Fossil record
Phylogeny
Morphological adaptations
Pelage
Skull
Teeth and jaws
Limbs and vertebral column
Tail
Laryngeal anatomy
Physiological adaptations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: What is a snow leopard? Behavior and ecology
Introduction
Population ecology
Habitat
Density
Population demography
Physical characteristics and capabilities
Behavior and life history
Sociality
Territoriality and home ranges
Communication
Activity and movement patterns
Habitat use
Mating and reproduction
Life expectancy and mortality
Foraging behavior
Hunting behavior
Kill-site behavior
Ecological interactions and effects
Predation
Carrion provisioning
Predation-risk effects
Interactions with other large carnivores
Snow leopard ecology in a human-dominated world
References
Chapter 3: What is a snow leopard? Biogeography and status overview
Snow leopard biogeography
Snow leopard population status
Population size-Historic estimates
Population size-Recent estimates
The snow leopard's legal status
Snow leopards and the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Snow leopard diet and prey
Introduction
Dietary composition
Recent studies
Summary
Wild ungulates
Livestock
Other mammals
Birds
Vegetation
Prey preferences
Dietary requirements and offtake rates
Hunting techniques
Status of prey
Mountain ungulates
Domestic livestock
Other mammals
Birds
Conclusions
References
Section II: Conservation concerns
Chapter 5: Livestock predation by snow leopards: Conflicts and the search for solutions
Introduction
Revisiting ``human-snow leopard conflicts´´
Understanding conflicts over livestock predation
Ecological underpinnings of livestock predation by snow leopards
Human underpinnings of livestock predation by snow leopards
Managing conflicts over livestock predation
Three-pronged strategy for addressing conflicts
Reducing livestock losses
Offsetting livestock losses
Improving social carrying capacity
Improving the current approach to livestock predation management
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 6: Living on the edge: Depletion of wild prey and survival of the snow leopard
Introduction
Study areas
Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), Nepal
Spiti Valley, India
Snow leopards and their prey in Sagarmatha National Park
Snow leopards and their prey in Spiti Valley
Implications of wild prey abundance for conservation management of snow leopards
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7: Illegal killing and trade
Introduction
Legal protection
Illegal trade
Monitoring illegal trade
Extent of illegal killing
Trade routes
Country summaries
Afghanistan
Bhutan
China
India
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Nepal
Pakistan
Russia
Tajikistan
Uzbekistan
Recommendations
References
Chapter 8: Climate change impacts on snow leopard range
Introduction
Climate change phenomena in snow leopard range
Temperature
Precipitation
Glaciers
Permafrost
Wetlands
Pasturelands
Treeline shift
Extreme weather events
Predicting future impacts of climate change on snow leopard range
Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Diseases of wild snow leopards and their wild ungulate prey
Introduction
Diseases in wild snow leopards
Causes of mortality in snow leopards
Infectious diseases
Selected viral diseases
Selected bacterial and rickettsial diseases
Selected parasitic infections
Diseases in snow leopard natural ungulate prey species
Sarcoptic mange in blue sheep and other prey species
Mycoplasmosis in markhor and other prey species
Peste des petits ruminants in primary prey species
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10: Emerging threats to snow leopards from energy and mineral development
Introduction
Impacts of mining and energy development
Development threats across snow leopard range
Mitigation policy and practice
Landscape-level mitigation in action: Mongolian Gobi case study
Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Linear infrastructure and snow leopard conservation
References
Chapter 12: Harvest of caterpillar fungus and wood by local people
Caterpillar fungus
Wood
References
Chapter 13: Snow leopard, common leopard, and wolf: Are they good neighbors?
Introduction
Methods
Snow leopard diet breadth
Snow leopard-competitors dietary overlap
Snow leopard-wolf spatiotemporal interactions
Snow leopard-common leopard interactions
Results
Snow leopard diet breadth
Snow leopard-competitors dietary overlap
Snow leopard-wolf spatiotemporal interactions
Snow leopard-common leopard spatiotemporal interactions
Discussion
References
Chapter 14: Promoting coexistence through improved understanding of human perceptions, attitudes, and behavior toward sno ...
Introduction
Understanding attitudes and human-snow leopard relationships
Methodological approaches to study attitudes
Factors affecting human attitudes toward snow leopards
Human-snow leopard relationships evolve as does culture
Conclusions
References
Section III: Conservation solutions in situ
Chapter 15: The role of mountain communities in snow leopard conservation
Introduction
A brief overview of community involvement in snow leopard conservation
Rationale for adopting community-based biodiversity protection and management models in snow leopard range countries
Improving snow leopard conservation
Defining what is meant by local participation
Integrating cultural conservation with snow leopard conservation
Alleviating human-wildlife conflicts
Best practices with recommended conditionality for engaging local communities
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 16: Building community governance structures and institutions for snow leopard conservation
The case for governance and snow leopard conservation
Social justice and governance
Conservation and good governance: Land tenure and representation
Building governance institutions
Early support for new governance institutions
Completing the circle: Building linkages and co-management processes with government
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Incentive and reward programs in snow leopard conservation
Subchapter 17.1. Himalayan Homestays: Fostering human-snow leopard coexistence
Introduction
Survey methods
Results
Economic impact
Ecological impact
Sociocultural impact
Discussion
Challenges and the way forward
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Subchapter 17.2. Snow Leopard Enterprises, Mongolia
Vision
How SLE works
Conservation contract, compliance, and consequences
Economic and social impact
Conservation impact
Challenges and opportunities
Subchapter 17.3. A review of lessons, successes, and pitfalls of livestock insurance and incentives schemes
Problems and solutions
History and design
Important factors for design, implementation, and success
Economic sustainability and scaling up
Additional factors
Successes of CMLIS for snow leopards and communities
Direct conservation payments
Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Livestock husbandry and snow leopard conservation
Subchapter 18.1. Corral improvements
Introduction
Design of corrals across the snow leopard range: Examples from Afghanistan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, and Taji ...
Measuring the success of corral improvements and documenting problems
How to improve corrals sustainably to enable more widespread use in the future?
Subchapter 18.2. The role of village reserves in revitalizing the natural prey base of the snow leopard
Introduction
Village reserves in operation
Acknowledgment
Appendix
Subchapter 18.3. The Ecosystem Health Program: A tool to promote the coexistence of livestock owners and snow leopards
Introduction
Program implementation mechanism
Site selection
Social mobilization
Training
Vaccine delivery
Conservation fund
Cost sharing
Monitoring
Program success in resolving conflicts
Reduction in disease-caused mortality and impacts on community well-being
Stabilizing herd size and avoiding pressure on the environment
Enhanced tolerance toward snow leopards
Conclusions and recommended practices
Strengthening community organizations
Establishing vaccination funds
Enhancing EHW capacity
Program monitoring
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 19: Religion and cultural impacts on snow leopards conservation
Subchapter 19.1. Introduction
Subchapter 19.2. Tibetan Buddhist monastery-based snow leopard conservation
Introduction
Connections between Tibetan Buddhism and snow leopards
Scientific study of monasteries role in snow leopard conservation
Pilot conservation projects cooperating with monasteries
Future prospects
Subchapter 19.3. Shamanism in Central Asian snow leopard cultures
Snow leopard work brings the sciences together
Going forward
Subchapter 19.4. Snow leopards in art and legend of the Pamir
Subchapter 19.5. The order ``barys´´ and title ``snow leopard´´: The snow leopard in symbolism, heraldry and numismatics
References
Chapter 20: Trophy hunting as a conservation tool for snow leopards
Subchapter 20.1. The trophy hunting program: Enhancing snow leopard prey populations through community participation
Introduction
Trophy animals in Northern Pakistan
The history of trophy hunting in Pakistan
Program implementation mechanism
Permit allocation
Marketing
Fees
Distribution of trophy hunting revenues
The current status of trophy hunting programs in snow leopard range
Gilgit-Baltistan
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Achievements, opportunities, and lessons learned
Achievements
Opportunities
Lessons learned
Desirable future
Subchapter 20.2. Argali sheep (Ovis ammon) and Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) trophy hunting in Mongolia
Introduction
Context
Trophy hunting
Recommendations
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Subchapter 20.3. Hunting of prey species-A review of lessons, successes, and pitfalls: Experiences from Kyrgyzstan and Ta ...
Development of hunting management of mountain ungulates in the post-Soviet era
Kyrgyzstan
Tajikistan
Concessions managing Marco Polo argali
Markhor conservancies
The community-based conservancies
Challenges
Conclusions and prospects
References
Chapter 21: Environmental education for snow leopard conservation
Introduction
What is EE?
Challenges in teaching snow-leopard-focused EE
Different approaches to snow leopard EE
Ri Gyancha, India-A school-based approach
Nomadic Nature Trunks and the Land of the Snow Leopard Network, How EE in a box has expanded across international boundaries
Snow leopard day festival, Altai Republic, Russia, and Tajikistan
Cross-border EE exchanges
Zoos and snow leopard EE
Monitoring and evaluation
From awareness to action
Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Law enforcement in snow leopard conservation
Snow leopards-Illegal killing and trade
Conflict cycles and killings
High-level trade and criminal linkages
Case study
Detention of ibex poachers in Kyrgyzstan
Capacity building prior to detention
Capacity building postdetention
Importance of developing preventive capacity-Left of ``bang´´ theory
Recommendations
Improving protection and counteracting poaching
Frontline enforcement efforts
Law enforcement technologies
Law enforcement collaboration
References
Chapter 23: Transboundary initiatives and snow leopard conservation
Transboundary conservation and snow leopards
Rationale for transboundary collaboration
The legal framework for transboundary conservation
Challenges in implementing transboundary conservation
Transboundary conservation initiatives and current status of transboundary protected areas
Conclusions
References
Appendix
Chapter 24: Corporate business and the conservation of the snow leopard: Worlds that need not collide
Introduction
Business case for conservation
Operational efficiencies
Competitive advantage, social license, and market positioning
Complying with legislation and lender bank requirements
Stage 1: Baseline data-Identifying priority sites for snow leopard
Stage 2: Environmental and social impact assessment-Establish threats and impacts
Stage 3: Apply the mitigation hierarchy to develop management actions to mitigate impacts
Environmental management plans
Biodiversity offsetting
Biodiversity action plans
Stage 4: Monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of actions
Stage 5: Modify and update actions
Opportunities
Conclusions
References
Section IV: Conservation solutions ex situ
Chapter 25: Management of captive snow leopards in the EAZA region
Introduction
Snow leopards in focus in the 1970s
Global studbook 1976
Breakthroughs in the 1980s
Goal of the EEP: To maintain a genetically intact population with high gene diversity
Founder representation
Effective population size
Founder genome equivalents
Suggestions for improvement
Toward global management
Why keep snow leopards in captivity?
References
Further reading
Chapter 26: Role of zoos in snow leopard conservation: The Species Survival Plan in North America
Introduction
Management of snow leopards in North American zoos
Population management strategy and tools
AZA Snow Leopard SSP-Status of the North American population
Reproduction
Husbandry
Nutrition
Disease recognition and management
Exhibit design
Education
Collaboration and challenges
References
Chapter 27: Captive snow leopards as ambassadors of wild kin
Subchapter 27.1. Kolmården Wildlife Park: Supporting snow leopards in the wild, sharing the message at home
Introduction
Subchapter 27.2. From a zoo came a true snow leopard champion
Subchapter 27.3. Ambassadors from the roof of the world
References
Chapter 28: Rescue, rehabilitation, translocation, reintroduction, and captive rearing: Lessons from the other big cats
Introduction
Case study 1. Planning a jaguar reintroduction in Argentina: Combining science, publicity, and public policy
Assessing the feasibility of a jaguar reintroduction into INR
Habitat suitability
Public support
Capacity and commitment
Planning and negotiating a jaguar reintroduction plan
Conclusions on developing a reintroduction plan
Case study 2. The Iberian lynx: Restoring a population on the verge of extinction
Identification of suitable habitat
Origin of released individuals
Release and monitoring
Results and conclusions
Case study 3. Genetic restoration as a management tool for endangered felids: Lessons learned from the Florida panther
Identification of a problem
Developing a plan for genetic restoration
Implementation and results
Conclusions
Case study 4: Rescue, rehabilitation, and reintroduction of Amur tigers into historic range in the Russian Far East
Rescue and rehabilitation of orphaned cubs
Reintroduction of cubs into historic range
Conclusions
Lessons learned
Find common ground with key constituents
Develop effective public outreach
Incorporate the knowledge and experience of the global scientific, zoo, and conservation communities to develop a defensibl ...
Ensure suitable habitat exists and reasons for extirpation are known and mitigated
Health care and disease screening of captive individuals and reintroduction sites
Release of captive-reared versus wild individuals
With captive-reared individuals, it is essential to minimize human contact, and probably preferable to provide negative rei ...
Better to release females (first)
Hard vs soft releases
Genetic restoration
Closely monitor released individuals
Be prepared for conflicts and the need to remove individuals
References
Section V: Techniques and technologies for the study of a cryptic felid
Chapter 29: Snow leopard research-A historical perspective
In the beginning
Steady march of science
Field surveys
Live animal research
Advances in the lab to support work in the field
The need for standard methods
Snow Leopard Information Management System
SLIMS discussion
References
Chapter 30: From VHF to satellite GPS collars-Advancements in snow leopard telemetry
Introduction
VHF telemetry-The first studies
The technology
Snow leopard studies
Argos PPT telemetry
The technology
Snow leopard studies
GPS telemetry
The technology
Snow leopard studies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 31: Conservation genetics of snow leopards
Introduction
Non-NGS studies
Mitochondrial DNA
Microsatellite development
Landscape genetics
Phylogeography
Advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods specifically for snow leopards
Molecular dietary analysis
Comparison of genetics with traditional methods (e.g., camera traps)
Major gaps and priorities for filling
Priority knowledge gap-Phylogeography
Priority knowledge gap-Multiscale population metrics
Priority knowledge gap-Landscape genetics
Priority knowledge gap-Genetic data from key range countries
Necessary steps to overcome knowledge gaps
Glossary
References
Chapter 32: Camera trapping-Advancing the technology
Camera-trapping applications and considerations
Distributions and abundance
Species interactions and communities
Temporal activity patterns and interactions
Field experiments
From exploration to inference
Individual identification
Ethical considerations
Overview of camera trap technology
Development of equipment
Assessment of future directions
GSM-based cameras
Limitations
Satellite-based cameras
Limitations
Camera-trap data management
Developments in image data storage and processing
Crowdsourcing
Artificial intelligence
Future directions in technology
References
Chapter 33: Drones for snow leopard conservation
Introduction
Mongolia case study
Conclusions
Addendum
References
Chapter 34: PAWS: Population Assessment of the World's Snow leopards
Introduction
The approach
Macro survey designs
Micro survey designs
Modular guides
Capacity building
PAWS so far
PAWS next steps
Conclusion
References
Section VI: Snow leopard status and conservation: Regional reviews and updates
Chapter 35: Snow leopard status and conservation in Afghanistan
Introduction: Historical records and past conservation efforts
Present status of snow leopards in Afghanistan
Assessment of existing and potential snow leopard geographical range
Estimates of snow leopard population in Afghanistan
Current threats to snow leopard populations
Measures to conserve the snow leopard in Afghanistan
Research on snow leopard and prey species
The legal and management frameworks
Threat mitigation efforts
Community-based conservation
Transboundary initiatives
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 36: The snow leopard in Kyrgyzstan
Snow leopard habitat and distribution
Status of snow leopard prey
Legal protection
Threats to snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan
National action plan, the NSLEP, and management plans for protected areas
Transboundary conservation initiatives
Research
NGOS working in Kyrgyzstan on conservation of snow leopards
Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU)
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
Snow Leopard Trust (SLT) in Partnership with the Snow Leopard Foundation in Kyrgyzstan (SLFK)
Fauna and Flora International (FFI)
Ilbirs Foundation
Future needs
References
Chapter 37: Conservation of snow leopards in Kazakhstan
Introduction
Distribution
Western Tien Shan
Northern Tien Shan
Zhetysu (Dzhungar) Alatau
Tarbagatai and Saur
Altai
Conservation efforts
Research and monitoring
National policy and legislation
Protected areas
Population status
Population size
Western Tien Shan
Northern Tien Shan
Dzhungar Alatau
Saur-Tarbagatai
Altai
Threats
Poaching and trafficking
Habitat degradation
Infrastructure development
Human population growth and urbanization
Disturbance
Climate change
References
Chapter 38: The snow leopard in Tajikistan
Snow leopard habitat in Tajikistan
Snow leopard population status
State of key prey species
Protected areas where snow leopards occur
Community-based and private conservancies
Threats to snow leopards in Tajikistan
Decline of key prey species
Degradation and fragmentation of habitat
Reduction in the prey base as a result of competition with livestock
Decrease in prey availability as a result of collection of wild plants for fuel
Poaching in connection with illegal trade in snow leopard skins, bones, and derivatives
Retaliatory killing as a result of attacks on livestock
Legal protection
The snow leopard action plan
NSLEP 2014-20
Future needs and priorities
References
Chapter 39: The snow leopard in Uzbekistan
Snow leopard status
Habitat
Prey species
Siberian ibex
Menzbier's marmot
Red marmot
Sympatric carnivores
Existing protected areas and their conservation effectiveness (Chatkal, Gissar and Zaamin reserves)
Chatkal biosphere reserve
Gissar biosphere reserve
Zaamin reserve
Zaamin National Park
Ugam-Chatkal National Park
Planned protected area expansion
Threats
Traditional snow leopard hunting
Live capture of cubs and adults
Conflicts with local herders
Armed human conflict
Natural mortality
Decrease of prey species populations
Subsistence hunting
Sport hunting
Disturbance factors: Human land use, collection of natural products
Grazing: Competition between wild prey and livestock
History of the snow leopard national strategy and action plan
Uzbekistan's role in GSLEP process: Nomination of 24th snow leopard landscape ``The Western Tien Shan´´
References
Chapter 40: Snow leopard conservation in Bhutan
Introduction
Snow leopard population status and habitat distribution in Bhutan
Threats
Direct threats
Indirect threats
Climate change
Snow leopard conservation in Bhutan
Chronology of snow leopard conservation efforts in Bhutan
Future plans
Conclusion
References
Chapter 41: Securing India's snow leopards: Status, threats, and conservation
Snow leopard range in India
State of knowledge
Progress in snow leopard population estimation in India
Challenges in snow leopard conservation
Livestock grazing
Human-snow leopard-wild prey interaction
Emerging threats
Conservation efforts in India
Landscape-level conservation
The way forward
References
Chapter 42: Conservation of snow leopard in Nepal
Distribution status, abundance, and ecology
Conservation threats and challenges
Strategies to mitigate conservation threats
Snow leopard conservation in protected areas (ecosystem approach)
Integrated conservation and development project with community-based approach
Conservation beyond protected areas
Legislative, policy, and related programmatic responses to snow leopard conservation
Legislative and policy tools
Community-based conservation initiatives
Paradigm shift in research and monitoring: Sign surveys to satellite telemetry
Looking ahead: From more boots on the ground to capacitating guardians of the mountains
References
Chapter 43: The current state of snow leopard conservation in Pakistan
Introduction
Threats and challenges
Snow leopard research and conservation paradigms
An overview of snow leopard research and conservation history in Pakistan
Current status of snow leopard and prey research
Snow leopard and sympatric carnivores
Wild prey
Conservation measures
Adopting a landscape approach for snow leopard conservation
Human-carnivore conflict mitigation and compensation measures
Ecosystem health and livelihood improvement initiatives
Capacity building and awareness raising
Lessons learned and way forward
References
Chapter 44: Current status and conservation of snow leopards in Mongolia
Introduction
Status and threats
Decreases in snow leopard prey
Snow leopard killing due to livestock depredation
Infrastructure development and habitat degradation
Poaching of snow leopards and their prey
The history of snow leopard conservation in Mongolia
Snow leopards in law and policy
Transboundary initiatives
Research, monitoring, and capacity building
Wildlife law enforcement
Legal framework to empower communities to co-management wildlife and habitat
Future needs to mitigate snow leopard threats
References
Chapter 45: Snow leopard conservation in Russia
Introduction
Current status of the snow leopard in Russia
Genetic structure of snow leopard populations in Russia and adjacent countries
Snow leopard dietary analysis
Snow leopard conservation in Russia
Conclusion
References
Chapter 46: Snow leopard status and conservation in China
Overview on snow leopard status in China
Distribution, population, historical information, and notable knowledge gaps
Protected areas
Snow leopard conservation in China
Government policies
Community-based conservation
Qinghai
Tibet A.R.
Xinjiang A.R.
Public participation and the role of social media in snow leopard conservation
Internet-based awareness-raising programs
Alipay
WeChat
JD WCS
Crowdfunding
Tencent public welfare
Sina Weibo
Public events
Research and monitoring
The journey of snow leopard research in China-A comprehensive review
Recent advancement in snow leopard research in China-First cases of snow leopard satellite tracking
Challenges to snow leopard conservation in China
The way forward
China as a lead for snow leopard conservation
International cooperation
References
Section VII: The future of snow leopards
Chapter 47: Sharing the conservation message
Introduction
Communicating conservation messages with the public
Methods of communication with the public
Social media
Popular media
Challenges in communicating with the public
Key conservation messages for the public
Positive messaging
Communicating conservation messages within the scientific and conservation community
Conferences
The Snow Leopard Network (SLN)
Challenges in communicating within the scientific community
Communicating the conservation message with the government
Methods of communicating with government
Challenges in communicating with governments
Conclusions
References
Chapter 48: Global strategies for snow leopard conservation: A spot-joining synthesis
Introduction
Four snow leopard strategies
Snow leopard survival strategy (SLSS 2003)
Snow leopard range-wide assessment and conservation planning (SLRAC) (2008)
Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) (2013)
Snow leopard survival strategy, revised version 2014.1 (SLSS 2014)
Why conserve snow leopards?
Where to conserve snow leopards?
How to conserve snow leopards?
A strategic synthesis
References
Chapter 49: The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program
Genesis: How the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program was formed
Value of the snow leopard and its landscapes
A new approach to snow leopard conservation
Framework: Key principles, structure, and approaches of the GSLEP
Experience of the Global Tiger Initiative
National governments leading the efforts
Mutual accountability of 12 snow leopard range countries and partners
Good practices and knowledge exchange taken to scale
Preparation stage and milestones of the GSLEP and the Global Forum on snow leopard conservation
Bishkek working meeting, December 2012
Bangkok planning workshop, March 2013
Beijing international workshop on snow leopard conservation in China, May 2013
Moscow preforum drafting meeting of senior officials, May 2013
Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum, Bishkek, October 22-23, 2013
The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program
The common goal
NSLEPs and global support components
Success factors
Outputs and enabling conditions
GSLEP launch, implementation, and information sharing
Making the common goal a reality
Impacts
Leadership and collective engagement
GSLEP Steering Committee
Vision and next steps
References
Chapter 50: Future prospects for snow leopard survival
References
Index
Back Cover