Sedimentary Petrology, 4e

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface to Fourth Edition
Preface to the Third Edition
Biographies
Chapter 1 Introduction: Basic Concepts and Approach
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic Concepts
1.2.1 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
1.2.2 Sedimentary Environments and Facies
1.2.2.1 Facies
1.2.2.2 Facies Models
1.2.3 Controls on Deposition: Tectonics, Climate and Sea Level
1.2.3.1 Climate
1.2.3.2 Sea Level
1.2.4 Stratigraphic Practice
1.2.5 Sequence Stratigraphy
1.2.5.1 Introduction
1.2.5.2 Accommodation and Sedimentation Rates
1.2.5.3 Scale and Order
1.2.5.4 Stratigraphic Sequences, Key Surfaces, Systems Tracts
1.2.5.5 Metre-Scale Cycles, High-Frequency Sequences, Parasequences
1.2.6 Diagenesis
1.3 Methodology
1.3.1 In the Field
1.3.2 In the Laboratory
1.3.3 The Sedimentological Literature
Further Reading
Chapter 2 Siliciclastic Sediments I: Sandstones, Conglomerates and Breccias
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sediment Texture
2.2.1 Grain Size and Grain-size Parameters
2.2.1.1 Interpretation and Use of Grain-size Analyses
2.2.2 Grain Morphology
2.2.3 Grain-surface Texture
2.2.4 Grain Fabric
2.2.5 Textural Maturity
2.3 Sedimentary Structures
2.3.1 Erosional Sedimentary Structures
2.3.2 Depositional Sedimentary Structures
2.3.2.1 Sediment Transport and Aqueous Flows
2.3.2.2 Bedding and Lamination
2.3.2.3 Current Ripples, Dunes and Cross-Stratification
2.3.2.4 Flaser and Lenticular Bedding
2.3.2.5 Antidunes and Antidune Bedding
2.3.2.6 Wave-formed Ripples and Cross-Lamination
2.3.2.7 Hummocky Cross-Stratification (HCS)
2.3.2.8 Wind Ripples, Dunes, Draas and Aeolian Cross-bedding
2.3.2.9 Graded Bedding
2.3.2.10 Mudcracks: Desiccation and Syneresis
2.3.3 Post-depositional Sedimentary Structures
2.3.4 Biogenic Sedimentary Structures
2.4 Palaeocurrent Analysis
2.4.1 Palaeocurrent Indicators
2.5 Detrital Components of Siliciclastic Sediments
2.5.1 Rock Fragments
2.5.2 Quartz
2.5.3 Feldspars
2.5.4 Micas
2.5.5 Clay Minerals
2.5.6 Heavy Minerals
2.5.7 Other Detrital Components
2.5.8 Compositional Maturity
2.6 Classification of Siliciclastic Sediments
2.6.1 Classification of Sandstones
2.6.2 Conglomerates and Breccias
2.6.2.1 Composition and Textures of Conglomerates
2.7 Petrography and Origin of Principal Sandstone Types
2.7.1 Quartz Arenites
2.7.2 Arkoses
2.7.3 Litharenites
2.7.4 Greywackes
2.8 Sandstone Composition, Provenance and Tectonic Setting
2.9 Sandstone Diagenesis
2.9.1 Compaction and Pressure Dissolution
2.9.2 Silica Cementation
2.9.3 Carbonate Cementation
2.9.4 Feldspar Authigenesis
2.9.5 Clay-mineral Authigenesis
2.9.6 Hematite Cementation and Pigmentation: Red Beds
2.9.7 Diagenetic Environments and Sequences
2.9.8 Diagenesis and Sequence Stratigraphy
2.9.9 CO2 Sequestration into Sandstone Reservoirs
2.10 Porosity and Permeability
2.11 Sediment Routing Systems
2.12 Depositional Environments of Sandstones and Coarser Clastics
2.12.1 Fluvial Systems and Facies
2.12.1.1 Alluvial Fan Facies
2.12.1.2 Meandering-stream Facies
2.12.1.3 Anastomosing-stream Facies
2.12.2 Desert Environments and Aeolian Sand Facies
2.12.3 Lacustrine Environments and Sandy Facies
2.12.4 Deltaic Environments and Facies
2.12.4.1 River-dominated Deltas
2.12.4.2 Wave-dominated Deltas
2.12.4.3 Tide-dominated Deltas
2.12.4.4 Ancient Deltas
2.12.4.5 Fan Deltas
2.12.5 Marine Shoreline Environments and Facies
2.12.5.1 Beach-barrier Island and Strandplain Systems
2.12.5.2 Tidal Flats
2.12.5.3 Estuaries and Incised Valleys
2.12.6 Shallow-marine Shelves, Epeiric Seas and Their Facies
2.12.6.1 Tidal Bedforms and Sand Sheets
2.12.6.2 Tidal Sand Banks
2.12.6.3 Non-tidal Offshore Sand Bodies
2.12.7 Continental Margins and Deep-water Basins
2.12.8 Glacial Environments
2.13 Facies Sequences, Controls and Sequence Stratigraphy
2.13.1 Facies Sequences and Controls
2.13.2 Sequence Stratigraphy
References
Further Reading
Chapter 3 Siliciclastic Sediments II: Mudrocks
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Textures and Structures of Mudrocks
3.2.1 Nodules and Concretions
3.3 The Colour of Mudrocks
3.4 Mineral Constituents of Mudrocks
3.4.1 Clay Minerals
3.4.2 Quartz
3.4.3 Organic Matter
3.4.4 Other Constituents
3.5 The Formation and Distribution of Clay Minerals in Modern Sediments
3.6 Diagenesis of Clay Minerals and Mudrocks
3.6.1 Early (Shallow) Diagenesis
3.6.2 Burial (Deeper) Diagenesis
3.7 Mudrocks and Their Depositional Environments
3.7.1 Residual Mudrocks and Soils
3.7.2 Detrital Mudrocks
3.7.2.1 Non-marine Mudrocks
3.7.2.2 Marine Mudrocks
3.7.2.3 Organic-rich Mudrocks and Black Shales
3.7.2.4 Shale Gas
3.7.2.5 Mud Diapirism and Mud Volcanoes
3.7.2.6 Loess and Loessite
3.7.3 Mudrocks of Volcaniclastic Origin
3.7.4 Temporal (and Spatial) Variations in Mudrock Sequences
References
Further Reading
Chapter 4 Carbonate Sediments: Limestones and Dolomites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Techniques for the Study of Carbonate Sediments
4.2.1 In the Field
4.2.2 The Petrographic Study of Carbonates
4.2.3 Isotopes and Trace Elements
4.3 Mineralogy of Carbonate Sediments
4.4 Carbonate Production and Factories
4.4.1 Carbonate Factories
4.4.2 Controls on Carbonate Production and Deposition
4.5 Components of Carbonate Rocks
4.5.1 Non-skeletal Grains
4.5.1.1 Ooids and Pisoids
4.5.1.2 Ancient Marine Ooids
4.5.1.3 Origin of Ooids and Seawater Chemistry Through Time
4.5.1.4 Peloids
4.5.1.5 Aggregates and Intraclasts
4.5.2 Skeletal Components (excluding Algae and Microbes)
4.5.2.1 Mollusca
4.5.2.2 Brachiopods
4.5.2.3 Cnidaria (especially Corals)
4.5.2.4 Echinodermata
4.5.2.5 Bryozoa
4.5.2.6 Foraminifera
4.5.2.7 Other Carbonate-forming Organisms
4.5.3 The Contribution of Microbes to Carbonates
4.5.3.1 Rhodophyta (Red Algae)
4.5.3.2 Chlorophyta (Green Algae)
4.5.3.3 Chrysophyta (Yellow-green Algae, Coccoliths)
4.5.3.4 Calcified Cyanobacteria and Algae (Calcimicrobes)
4.5.3.5 Micrite Envelopes and Microbial Micritisation
4.5.3.6 Microbialites: Stromatolites, Thrombolites and Oncoids
4.5.4 Lime Mud and Micrite
4.6 Classification of Limestones
4.6.1 Classification Schemes
4.6.2 Carbonate Microfacies and Standard Microfacies Types (SMF)
4.7 Limestone Grain Size and Texture
4.8 Sedimentary Structures of Limestones
4.8.1 Bedding Planes, Hardgrounds, Tepees and Palaeokarstic Surfaces
4.8.2 Current and Wave Structures
4.8.3 Cavity Structures
4.9 Carbonate Diagenesis
4.9.1 Marine Diagenesis
4.9.1.1 Marine Diagenesis in Recent Carbonate Sediments
4.9.1.2 Marine Diagenesis in Ancient Limestones
4.9.1.3 Discussion of Marine Cements
4.9.2 Meteoric Diagenesis
4.9.2.1 Ancient Meteoric Calcite Cements
4.9.3 Calcite Spar: A Meteoric and Burial Cement
4.9.3.1 Origin of Calcite Spar
4.9.4 Neomorphism (Recrystallisation)
4.9.4.1 Microspar–pseudospar; Aggrading Neomorphism
4.9.4.2 Calcitisation of Aragonite Grains and Cements
4.9.4.3 Degrading Neomorphism
4.9.5 Modelling Limestone Diagenesis
4.9.6 Compaction
4.9.6.1 Differential Compaction
4.10 Dolomitisation and Dedolomitisation
4.10.1 Dolomites: Nature and Occurrence
4.10.2 Origin of Dolomites and Dolomitisation Models
4.10.2.1 Modern Dolomites
4.10.2.2 Ancient Dolomites
4.10.2.3 Seawater Dolomitisation
4.10.2.4 Burial Dolomitisation and Hydrothermal Dolomite (HTD)
4.10.3 Modelling Dolomitisation
4.10.4 Dedolomitisation (Calcitisation of Dolomite)
4.11 Silicification of Limestones
4.12 Porosity in Carbonate Sediments
4.12.1 Carbonate Paragenesis and Burial History Plots
4.13 Carbonate Depositional Environments and Facies
4.13.1 Non-marine Carbonate Sediments
4.13.1.1 Lacustrine Limestones
4.13.1.2 Pedogenic Carbonates: Calcrete and Dolocrete
4.13.1.3 Spring Carbonates: Tufa and Travertine
4.13.2 Marine Carbonates and Carbonate Platforms
4.13.3 Shelf and Ramp Systems: Facies Belts and Standard Microfacies
4.13.4 Intertidal–supratidal Carbonates
4.13.5 Lagoonal Limestones
4.13.6 Intertidal–subtidal Carbonate Sand Bodies and Storm Deposits
4.13.7 Offshore Shelf-ramp Carbonates: Storm Deposits, Internalites, Limestone-Mud/Marl Alternations (Ribbon Rocks)
4.13.7.1 Storm Beds and Banks
4.13.8 Reefs and Carbonate Buildups
4.13.8.1 Reefs as Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
4.13.9 Pelagic Limestones
4.13.10 Resedimented Deeper-water Limestones
4.14 Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy and Forward Modelling
4.14.1 Sequence Stratigraphy of Carbonate Shelves
4.14.2 Sequence Stratigraphy of Carbonate Ramps
4.14.3 Sequence Stratigraphy of Mixed Siliciclastic–Carbonate Successions
4.14.4 Metre-scale Cycles (Parasequences) and their Stacking Patterns
4.14.5 Diagenesis and Sequence Stratigraphy
4.14.6 Modelling Carbonate Stratigraphy, Sequences and Cycles
References
Further Reading
Websites
Chapter 5 Evaporites
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Techniques for Studying Evaporites
5.1.2 Early Geochemical Work
5.2 Evaporite Deposits and Depositional Environments
5.3 Gypsum and Anhydrite
5.3.1 Sabkha Sulphate and Nodular Anhydrite
5.3.2 Bottom-growth Gypsum
5.3.3 Laminated Gypsum/Anhydrite
5.3.4 Resedimented Gypsum-Anhydrite
5.3.5 Secondary and Fibrous Gypsum
5.3.6 Burial Anhydrite
5.4 Halite
5.5 Other Evaporite Minerals and Their Occurrence
5.5.1 Potassium and Magnesium Salts
5.5.2 Lacustrine Evaporites
5.6 Evaporite Dissolution and Replacement
5.7 Evaporite Sequences and Discussion
5.8 Evaporites Through Time
5.9 Evaporites, Diapirism, Deformation and Décollement
References
Further Reading
Chapter 6 Sedimentary Ironstones and Iron Formations
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Techniques for the Study of Ironstones and Iron Formations
6.2 Source and Transportation of Iron
6.3 Formation of the Principal Iron Minerals
6.4 Occurrence and Petrography of Iron Minerals
6.4.1 Iron Oxides
6.4.2 Iron Carbonates
6.4.3 Iron Sulphides
6.4.4 Iron Silicates
6.5 Precambrian Iron Formations and Phanerozoic Ironstones
6.5.1 Precambrian Iron Formations
6.5.2 Phanerozoic Ironstones
6.6 Bog Iron Ores
6.7 Ferromanganese Nodules and Crusts, and Metalliferous Sediments
References
Further Reading
Chapter 7 Sedimentary Phosphate Deposits
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Techniques for Studying Phosphorites
7.2 Mineralogy
7.3 Nodular and Bedded Phosphorites
7.3.1 Recent–Subrecent Occurrences
7.3.2 Origin of Marine Phosphorites
7.3.3 Ancient Phosphorite Sequences
7.4 Bioclastic and Pebble-Bed Phosphorites
7.5 Guano and Ocean-Island Phosphorites
References
Further Reading
Chapter 8 Coal and Petroleum
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Modern Organic Deposits
8.3 Ancient Organic Deposits
8.4 Coals and the Coal Series
8.4.1 Humic Coals
8.4.2 Sapropelic Coals
8.5 Coal Petrology
8.5.1 Organic Constituents
8.5.2 Inorganic Constituents
8.5.3 Gas in Coal
8.5.4 Coal Balls
8.6 Coal Formation and Rank
8.6.1 Chemical Considerations
8.6.2 Rank, Depth and Temperature
8.7 Occurrence of Coal
8.8 Formation of Kerogen
8.9 Petroleum
8.9.1 Composition and Occurrence
8.9.2 Formation of Petroleum
References
Further Reading
Chapter 9 Cherts and Siliceous Sediments
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Techniques for Studying Chert
9.2 Chert Petrology
9.3 Bedded Chert
9.3.1 Siliceous Ooze and Bedded Chert
9.3.1.1 Modern and Phanerozoic
9.3.1.2 Precambrian Cherts
9.3.2 The Origin of Chert
9.4 Nodular Chert
9.5 Non-Marine Siliceous Sediment and Chert
References
Further Reading
Index
EULA