Scramjet Propulsion: A Practical Introduction

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgment
Chapter 1 Introduction to Hypersonic Air-Breathing Propulsion
1.1 Hypersonic Flow and Hypersonic Flight
1.2 Chemical Propulsion Systems
1.2.1 Turbojets
1.2.2 Ramjets
1.2.3 Scramjets
1.2.4 Combined Cycle Propulsion
1.3 Classes of Hypersonic Vehicles
1.4 Scramjet Engine–Vehicle Integration
1.5 Chemical Propulsion Performance Comparison
1.6 Hypersonic Air-Breathing Propulsion Historical Overview
1.6.1 Development Efforts in the United States
1.6.2 Development Programs around the World
1.6.2.1 The German Sänger TSTO
1.6.2.2 The Russian Kholod Project
1.6.2.3 France
1.6.2.4 Japan
1.7 Scramjet Flight Demonstration Programs
1.7.1 NASA Hyper-X Flight Program (X-43A Research Vehicle)
1.7.2 Air Force Scramjet Engine Demonstrator-WaveRider Program (X-51A)
1.7.3 Australia–US HIFiRE Program
1.8 New Hypersonic Air-Breathing Propulsion Programs
1.9 Hypersonic Air-Breathing Propulsion Critical Technologies
1.10 Critical Design Issues
Questions
References
Chapter 2 Theoretical Background
2.1 Atmospheric Flight
2.1.1 Ideal Air-Breathing Propulsion Model: Uninstalled Thrust and Specific Impulse
2.1.2 Earth's Atmosphere
2.1.3 Dynamic Pressure
2.1.4 Air Mass Flow Available for Thrust
2.2 Air Thermodynamic Models
2.2.1 Equilibrium Air Chemistry: Perfect Gas Assumption
2.3 Fundamental Equations
2.3.1 One-Dimensional Aerothermodynamic Equations
2.3.2 Stagnation State
2.4 Thermodynamic Cycle of Air-Breathing Propulsion
2.4.1 Engine Reference Station Numbers
2.4.2 Flow Thermodynamic Properties
2.4.3 Adiabatic Compression Process 03
2.4.4 Isobaric Heat Addition Process 34
2.4.5 Adiabatic Expansion Process 410
2.4.6 Combustor Energy Balance and Combustor Efficiency
2.5 Air-Breathing Propulsion Performance Measures
2.5.1 Thermal Efficiency
2.5.2 Propulsive Efficiency
2.5.3 Overall Efficiency
2.5.4 Other Forms of Propulsion Performance Measures
2.5.5 Specific Impulse Estimate in Terms of Kinetic Energy Efficiency
2.6 Shock Waves in Supersonic Flow
2.7 One-Dimensional Flow with Heat Addition
2.8 Closing Remarks
Questions
References
Chapter 3 Aerothermodynamics of Vehicle-Integrated Scramjet
3.1 Aerothermodynamic Environment
3.1.1 Air-Breathing Hypersonic Cruise
3.1.2 Air-Breathing Access to Space Vehicles
3.1.3 Reynolds Number and Air-Breathing Hypersonic Cruise
3.2 Hypersonic Viscous Flow Phenomena
3.2.1 Shock Layer
3.2.2 Viscous Interaction Layer
3.2.3 Entropy or Vorticity Interaction Layer
3.3 Laminar to Turbulent Transition in Hypersonic Flows
3.3.1 Transition Correlations Based on Boundary-Layer Momentum Thickness
3.3.2 Surface Roughness Effect on Boundary-Layer Transition
3.4 Hypersonic Flowfield for Propulsion-Integrated Vehicles
3.4.1 Sources of Viscous Interactions and Shock–Shock Interactions
3.4.2 Forebody/Inlet Flowfield
3.4.3 NASA Hyper-X: A Case Study for Forebody Boundary-Layer Transition
3.4.4 Cowl Leading-Edge Shock Interactions and Shock-on-Lip Heating
3.5 Convective Heat Transfer or Aerodynamic Heating
3.5.1 Heat Flux Over a Flat Surface
3.5.2 Stagnation-Point Heat Flux
3.5.3 Effect of Dynamic Pressure on Aerodynamic Heating
3.6 NASA X-43A Leading-Edge Flight Hardware
3.7 Inlet Blunt Leading-Edge Effects and Entropy Layer Swallowing
3.8 Inlet Shock-On-Lip Condition or Inlet Speeding
3.9 Shock–Boundary Layer Interactions in the Propulsion Flowpath
3.9.1 Scramjet Operation at High Hypersonic Speed
3.9.2 Scramjet Operation at Low Hypersonic Speed
3.9.3 Inlet Isolator Shock Train
3.10 Inlet Unstart
3.11 Closing Remarks
Questions
References
Chapter 4 Scramjet Inlet/Forebody and Isolator
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Engine Inlet Function and Design Requirements
4.2.1 Captured Airflow and Capture Area
4.2.2 Air Compression Requirement
4.2.3 Inlet/Forebody Design Requirements
4.3 Inlet Types
4.3.1 Internal Compression Inlet
4.3.2 External Compression Inlet
4.3.3 Mixed External–Internal Compression Inlet
4.4 Inlet Compression System Performance
4.4.1 Diffusion Process in Ramjet Inlet
4.4.2 Performance Parameters for Scramjet Inlets
4.4.2.1 Allowable Compression Static Pressure and Temperature
4.4.2.2 Compression Efficiencies
4.4.2.3 Kinetic Energy Efficiency
4.4.2.4 Total Pressure Recovery
4.4.2.5 Dimensionless Entropy Gradient
4.5 Hypersonic Inlet Designs
4.5.1 Axisymmetric
4.5.2 Two-Dimensional Fixed Geometry Inlet
4.5.3 Three-Dimensional Sidewall Compression Inlet
4.5.4 Three-Dimensional Rectangular-to-Elliptical Shape Transition Inlet
4.5.5 Variable Geometry or Dual-flowpath Inlets
4.6 Inlet Operation: Start and Unstart
4.6.1 Contraction Ratio Limit for Inlet Starting
4.7 Inlet Aerodynamics
4.7.1 Inlet Boundary Layer
4.7.2 Boundary Layer Growth in Lower Forebody Surface
4.8 Isolator
4.8.1 Isolator Shock Train
4.8.2 Isolator Length
Questions
References
Chapter 5 Scramjet Combustor
5.1 Combustor Process Desired Properties
5.2 Combustor Entrance Conditions
5.2.1 Combustor Entrance Pressure
5.2.2 Combustor Entrance Temperature
5.2.3 Required Combustor Entry Mach Number
5.3 Combustion Stoichiometry
5.3.1 Stoichiometric Fuel-to-Air Ratio
5.4 Combustion Flowfield
5.4.1 Fuel Injection and Injector Devices
5.4.2 Combustion Performance Parameters
5.4.3 Fuel/Air Mixing Efficiency
5.4.4 Combustion and Ignition Time
5.4.5 Ignitors and Ignition Promoters
5.4.6 Flameholding
5.4.7 Combustion Chemical Kinetics Mechanisms
5.4.8 Supersonic Turbulent Combustion Characterization
5.5 Scramjet Combustor Geometry
5.5.1 NASA X-43A Vehicle with Rectangular Scramjet Geometry
5.5.2 NASA Hypersonic Research Engine with Conical Axisymmetric Geometry
5.5.3 3-D Elliptical and Round Scramjet Geometries
5.6 Scramjet Combustor Design Issues
5.7 Closing Remarks
Questions
References
Chapter 6 Fuels for Hypersonic Air-Breathing Propulsion
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Fuel Energy for Combustion
6.2 Endothermic Fuels
6.3 Heat Sink Capacity of Hydrogen and Endothermic Fuels
6.4 Fuel Heat Sink Requirements
6.5 Ignition Characteristics of Fuels
6.6 Mixing Characteristics of Cracked Hydrocarbon Fuels
6.7 Structural and Heat Transfer Considerations
6.8 Fuel System Integration and Control
6.9 Combustion Technical Challenges with Hydrocarbon Fuels
6.10 Impact of Fuel Selection on Hypersonic Vehicle Design
6.11 Fuels Research for Hypersonic Air-Breathing Propulsion
Questions
References
Chapter 7 Dual-Mode Combustion Scramjet
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Phenomenological Description of Dual-Mode Scramjet
7.3 Heat Addition to Flow in Constant Area Duct
7.4 Divergent Combustor and Heat Release
7.4.1 Heat Addition and Thermal Choke
7.4.2 Dual-Mode Scramjet Isolator
7.4.3 Axial Location of Choked Thermal Throat
7.4.4 Combustion-Induced Pressure Rise and Flow Separation
7.5 Combustor Mode Transition Studies
7.5.1 HIFiRE-2 Dual-Mode Combustor
7.5.2 LAPCAT II Dual-Mode Combustor
7.5.3 JHU APL Axisymmetric Dual-Combustor Engine (DCE)
7.5.4 Free-Jet Dual-Mode Combustor
7.6 Closing Remarks
Questions
References
Chapter 8 Scramjet Nozzle/Aftbody
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Nozzle Function
8.1.2 Expansion Process
8.2 Nozzle Geometric Configurations
8.2.1 Two- and Three-Dimensional Nozzles
8.2.2 Single Expansion Ramp Nozzle (SERN)
8.2.3 Three-Dimensional Elliptical to Rectangular Shape Transitioning Nozzles
8.2.4 Nozzles for Combined Cycle Propulsion Systems
8.2.5 Issues Related to Nozzle for Dual-Mode Scramjet
8.3 Nozzle Performance Parameters
8.3.1 Adiabatic Expansion Efficiency
8.3.2 Nozzle Velocity Coefficient
8.3.3 Entropy Increase
8.3.4 Nozzle Efficiency or Gross Thrust Coefficient
8.4 Nozzle Flow Losses
8.5 SERN Design Approach
8.6 Nozzle Ground Testing Issues
8.7 Special Topics for Further Research
8.7.1 Flow Separation
8.7.2 Relaminarization
8.7.3 Aft-Body Performance at Transonic Speeds
8.7.4 Variable Area Nozzle
8.7.5 External Burning
8.8 Closing Remarks
Questions
References
Chapter 9 Materials, Structures, and Thermal Management
9.1 Hypersonic Flight Mission Characteristics
9.2 Aerodynamic Heating
9.2.1 Stagnation Temperature
9.2.2 Wall Temperature Estimation for TPS
9.3 Hypersonic Integrated Structures
9.3.1 Hot, Cooled, and Warm Structures
9.3.1.1 Hot Structures
9.3.1.2 Cold Structures
9.3.1.3 Warm or Externally Insulated Structure
9.3.1.4 Actively Cooled Structure
9.3.2 Vehicle Nose and Leading Edges
9.3.2.1 Hot Structure
9.3.2.2 Externally Insulated Structure
9.3.2.3 Active Cooled Structure
9.3.3 Passive and Active Cooling Methods
9.3.4 Fuels for Regenerative Cooling
9.3.5 Integral and Nonintegral Fuel Tanks
9.4 High-Temperature Materials Requirements and Properties
9.4.1 Design Drivers and Material Properties
9.5 Selected Materials for Hypersonics
9.5.1 Superalloys: High-Temperature Metals
9.5.2 Refractory Metals and Ceramic Matrix Composites
9.5.3 Carbon–Carbon Composites
9.5.4 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) and Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
9.5.5 Material for Scramjet Combustors
9.5.6 Reusable Thermal Protection Materials
9.5.7 Coatings
9.6 Examples of Vehicle Development Structure and Materials
9.6.1 X-43A Lifting Body Vehicle: LH2 Fueled, Mach 7, Mach 10 Scramjet Flight Demonstrator
9.6.2 X-51A Waverider: JP-7-Fueled, Mach 6 Scramjet Flight Demonstrator
9.6.3 LAPCAT 2: LH2 Mach 5 Civil Transport Concept
9.6.4 SR-71: Mach 3.2 Military Aircraft
9.7 Materials and Structures Technical Challenges
9.7.1 Thermostructural Analysis
Questions
References
Chapter 10 Scramjets and Combined Cycle Propulsion
10.1 Aerospace Propulsion
10.2 Combined Cycle Propulsion Concepts
10.3 From Takeoff to Hypersonic Cruise
10.4 Ideal Cycle Analysis of Turbojet and Ramjet Engines
10.4.1 Parametric Analysis of Turbojet and Ramjet Engines
10.4.2 Ideal Ramjet
10.4.3 Specific Impulse of Ramjet with Losses
10.4.4 Ideal Turbojet
10.4.5 Performance Characteristics of Hydrogen-Fueled Turbo-Ramjet Engine
10.4.6 Turbojet for Supersonic Civil Transports
10.4.7 Thrust Augmentation Options
10.4.8 Turbo Engine for Low-Speed Cycle of TBCC Propulsion Systems
10.5 Single-Stage-To-Orbit and Two-State-To-Orbit Vehicles
10.6 Propulsion for Spaceplanes
10.6.1 NASA Two-Stage Launch Vehicle
10.6.2 Over–Under Dual Flowpath TBCC Concept
10.6.3 Synergetic Air-Breathing Rocket Engine (SABRE)
10.6.4 Australia Three Stage Space Launch System
10.7 Hydrogen for Hypersonic Air-Breathing Propulsion
10.7.1 Hydrogen for Fueling Entire Combined Cycle Propulsion Systems
10.7.2 Hydrogen Fuel for Air-Breathing Propulsion
10.7.3 Hydrogen for Orbital Flight Propulsion
10.7.4 Hypersonic Transport Aircraft for 0 10.7.5 Critical Areas Requiring Additional Research and Technology Development
10.8 Technical Challenges of Combined Cycle Propulsion
10.8.1 Transonic Thrust Pinch
10.8.2 TBCC Propulsion Mode Transition
10.8.3 Materials for Combined Cycle Propulsion
10.9 Closing Remarks
Questions
References
Chapter 11 Ground Testing and Evaluation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Airframe/Propulsion-Integrated Vehicle Design Requirements
11.3 Ground Testing Overview
11.3.1 Flow Physics Fidelity, Scale, and Chemistry
11.3.2 Types of Wind Tunnels
11.3.3 Duplicating Hypersonic Flight Environment in Ground Facilities
11.4 Ground Testing for the NASA Hyper-X Program
11.4.1 Aerodynamic Testing
11.4.2 AeroPropulsion Testing
11.4.3 Hyper-X AeroPropulsion Test Simulation Method
11.4.4 Hyper-X Risk Reduction Testing for the Mach 7 Flights
11.4.5 Hyper-X Mach 10 Flowpath Testing in HYPULSE Shock Tunnel
11.4.6 X-43A Cowl Actuation Simulated at Flight Condition
11.4.7 Hyper-X Stage Separation
11.5 Ground Testing for the USAF X-51A Waverider
11.6 ONERA Ground Testing for the European LAPCAT2 Combustor
11.7 Vitiated versus Clean Air Hypersonic Wind Tunnel
11.8 Diagnostics and Measurements for Scramjet Combustion
Questions
References
Chapter 12 Analysis, Computational Modeling, and Simulation
12.1 Overview of Computational Fluid Dynamics and Turbulence
12.1.1 Turbulence and Computational Approaches
12.1.2 RANS Modeling – Time Averaging
12.1.3 Selection of Turbulent Model
12.1.4 Representation of the Flame Structure in Turbulent High-Speed Flow
12.1.5 Flamelet Models for Turbulent Combustion
12.2 Surrogate-Based Analysis and Optimization (SBAO)
12.2.1 Surrogate Modeling
12.3 Flowfield in Highly Integrated Hypersonic Air-breathing Vehicle
12.3.1 Vehicle Forebody
12.3.2 Inlet/Isolator
12.3.3 Combustor
12.3.4 Nozzle/Afterbody
12.4 NASA Hyper-X Program Computational Modeling Requirements
12.4.1 Nose Tip-to-Tail Analysis Methodology
12.5 Overview of Selected CFD Analysis Cases
12.5.1 Flamelet Model for HIFiRE-2 Direct Connect Rig (HDCR) Flowpath
12.5.2 LES for LAPCAT-II Dual-Mode Combustor
12.5.3 NASA LaRC Enhanced Injection and Mixing Project (EIMP)
12.6 Closing Remarks
Questions
References
Chapter 13 Hypersonic Air-Breathing Flight Testing
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Flight Operational Envelope
13.3 Flight Test Technique Concepts
13.3.1 Subscale Captive Carry
13.3.2 Air-Launched Free Flight
13.4 X-43A: Air-lifted, Rocket-boosted Approach
13.4.1 Mach 7 Flight Test
13.4.2 Mach 10 Flight Test
13.4.3 NAWC-WD Sea Range That Supported the X-43A Flight Tests
13.5 Australia/USA Flight Experiments with Sounding Rockets
13.5.1 HIFiRE-2
13.6 Russia CIAM and NASA Partnership for Scramjet Flight Testing
13.7 Hypersonic Flight Demonstration Program (HyFly)
13.8 Phoenix Air-Launched Small Missile (ALSM)
13.9 Gun-Launched Scramjet Missile Testing
13.10 X-43A Flight Test Mishap
13.11 Closing Remarks
References
Powering the Future of Transcontinental Flight and Access to Space
Hypersonic Civil Transports
Hypersonic Air-Breathing Propulsion for Military Applications
Air-Breathing Propulsion for Access to Space
Glossary
Nomenclature
Index
EULA