Quality Determinants In Coffee Production presents a comprehensive overview of the main determinants of coffee quality during processing. Authored by members of the Laboratory for Analysis and Research in Coffee at the Federal Institute of Espírito Santo, the chapters in this text explain how coffee quality can be affected through each step of the main processing methods. The first section explores the history of coffee processing, covering how the processes and techniques of sensorial analysis have developed. The second section covers the evolution of these techniques and how various complexities can affect their use, plus the statistical tools that are used to increase test accuracy. Another section focuses on the relationship between fruit microbiology and coffee quality, promoting an understanding of how yeasts, fungi and bacteria effect the quality of coffee during processing. Another section is dedicated to the biotechnological processes used in coffee production, including the applicability of induced and spontaneous routes from the manipulation of raw material, the relationship between wet processing and spontaneous fermentation and the construction of sensorial routes. A final section explores volatile coffee compounds and gas chromatography techniques, including chemical and sensory maps. The majority of the reference works published on coffee processing have a pragmatic approach covering production, harvesting, post-harvesting and marketing. This work goes beyond these subjects, covering the factors that impact quality and how they lead to either qualitative reduction or gains during processing. New technological and scientific indicators for the modification and the creation of sensory routes are extensively covered, as are the international protocols used in the sensorial analysis of coffee. With its broad approach, this text presents a multidisciplinary perspective connecting areas such as statistics, biochemistry, analytical chemistry and microbiology to the results of sensory analysis using different technologies and processes. A direct relationship between these factors is established in order to help researchers understand their combined effect on coffee quality during processing.
Author(s): Lucas Louzada Pereira; Taís Rizzo Moreira
Series: Food Engineering Series
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2021
Language: English
Pages: 447
City: Cham
Series Preface
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1: Harvesting, Drying and Storage of Coffee
1 General Introduction
2 Harvesting and Cleaning Coffee Beans
2.1 Cleaning Around and Under the Tree
2.2 Single-Pass Stripping
2.3 Sweep and Collect
2.4 Winnowing
2.4.1 Motorized Pre-Cleaning Coffee Machine
2.5 Selective Harvest or Finger picking
2.6 Mechanized Harvesting
2.7 Coffee Transportation to the Pre-Processing Unit
3 Pre-Processing of the Coffee Beans
3.1 Washing and Separation of Coffee
3.2 Pre-processing by “Dry Way”
3.3 Reuse and Application of Processing Waters
4 Drying
5 Coffee Moisture Content
5.1 Coffee Moisture Content Calculation
5.1.1 Moisture Content Base Changing
5.2 Moisture Content Determination methods
5.2.1 Direct or Basic Methods
Oven
Distillation
5.2.2 Sources of Error with Direct Methods of Moisture Content Determination
5.3 Indirect Methods for Moisture Content Determination
5.3.1 Electrical Resistance Method
5.3.2 Dielectric Method
6 Equilibrium Moisture Content
7 Airflow
7.1 Static Pressure
8 Fans
8.1 Fans Classification
8.2 The Use of Fans for Drying
9 Coffee Dryers
9.1 Terrace Coffee Drying
9.1.1 Location of the Drying Terrace
9.1.2 Types of Drying Terrace
9.1.3 Required Area for Terrace Drying
9.1.4 Drying Terrace Management
9.1.5 Drying Terrace Disadvantages
9.1.6 Problems with the Use of Solar Energy for Coffee Drying
9.2 High Temperature Drying in Mechanical Dryers
9.2.1 Fixed Bed or Fixed Layer Dryers
9.3 Concurrent Flow Dryers
9.4 Rotary Dryers
9.5 Hybrid Terrace or Terrace Dryer
9.6 Drying with Natural Air in Silos and Combination Drying
9.6.1 Coffee Drying with Seven Silos System
9.7 Combination of Drying Systems
9.7.1 Combination (Conventional Terrace and Mechanical Dryers)
9.7.2 Combination (Terrace with Dryer Silo)
9.7.3 Combination (Hybrid Terrace with Conventional Mechanical Dryer)
9.7.4 Combination (Hybrid Terrace with Silo-Dryer)
10 Coffee Storage in the Farm
11 Coffee Processing of Coffee (Hulling and Classification)
12 Storing the Hulled Coffee
13 Energy Use for Coffee Drying
13.1 Energy from the Biomass
14 Furnaces for the Drying Air Heating
14.1 Furnace Types for Coffee Drying
14.2 Furnaces Use Recommendations
14.2.1 Furnaces with Direct Heating
References
Chapter 2: Global Warming and the Effects of Climate Change on Coffee Production
1 General Introduction
2 Global Warming in the Field of Agriculture
2.1 Main Consequences of Global Warming and Climate Change on Agriculture
3 The Importance of Coffee for Brazil and the Effect of Global Warming on the Production of This Cultivar
3.1 Economic and Social Importance of Coffee Culture
3.2 Production of Coffee Crop (Coffea sp.)
3.3 Influence of Precipitation and Temperature on Coffee Quality
4 Edaphoclimate Zoning for Conilon and Arabica Coffee
4.1 Edaphoclimatic Zoning for Conilon and Arabica Coffee in the State of Espírito Santo
5 Scenarios of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
5.1 IPCC Working Groups
5.2 The Fifth and Most Recent IPCC Report
5.3 Scenarios of the Fifth Report of the IPCC
5.4 Criticism About IPCC
5.5 Impact of Temperature Increase in Areas Suitable for Coffee Production in Espírito Santo
6 Final Considerations
References
Chapter 3: Soil Microorganisms and Quality of the Coffee Beverage
1 General Introduction
2 Soil Microorganisms in Coffee Crop Management
2.1 Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
2.1.1 Diazotrophic Bacteria
2.1.2 Microorganisms in Biological Control and Pathogen Suppression
2.2 Plant Growth Promoting Fungi (PGPF)
2.3 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF)
3 Effect of Soil Physicochemical and Microbiological Characteristics on Coffee Quality
3.1 The Importance of Soil Microorganisms in Soil Fertility and Coffee Quality
3.2 Effect of AMF on Coffee Growth, Yield and Quality
3.2.1 Mineral Fertilizers
3.2.2 Organic Fertilizers
3.2.3 Green Manure and Other Intercropping or Multiple Crops in Coffee Nutrition, Microbiota and Quality
4 The Role of Soil Microbiota in Biological Control and Healthy of Coffee
5 Effects of Topographic and Microclimatic Factors on Microbiota and Coffee Quality
6 Microbial Compounds That Influence Plant Growth and Quality of the Coffee
7 Final Considerations
References
Chapter 4: Biochemical Aspects of Coffee Fermentation
1 General Introduction
2 Fermentation
2.1 Fermentation as a Method of Food Preservation
2.2 Main Groups of Microorganisms Used in Food Fermentation
2.3 Fermentation and Health
2.4 Fermentation and Coffee Sensory Quality
3 Fermentation and Precursing Compounds
3.1 Organic Acids
3.2 Sugars
3.3 Free Amino Acids and Proteins
3.4 Phenolic Compounds
3.5 Lipids
4 Biochemical Coffee Fermentation Routes
5 Microbiota in Coffee Fermentation
6 Natural Fermentation or Fermentation with Cultures Starters
7 Final Considerations
References
Chapter 5: Chemical Constituents of Coffee
1 General Introduction
2 Volatile Constituents of Coffee
3 Volatile Compounds of Arabica and Robusta Coffee
4 Bioactive Coffee Constituents
5 Coffee Acidity and Its Impact on Quality
6 Environmental and Processing Influence on Chemical Composition of Coffee
7 Chromatography Applied to the Analysis of the Chemical Composition of Coffee
References
Chapter 6: Relationship Between Coffee Processing and Fermentation
1 General Introduction
2 Processing and Fermentation, Determining Quality
3 Spontaneous Fermentation by Wet
4 Fermentation by Fully Washed Method
5 Spontaneous Fermentation with the Semi-Dry Method
6 Spontaneous Fermentation by the Natural Method
7 Yeast-Induced Fermentation
8 Fermentation by Carbonic Maceration
9 Anaerobic and Aerobic Fermentation in Coffee Process
10 Microorganisms Present in Coffee Fruits
11 Coffee Mycotoxins
11.1 Mycotoxins
11.2 Coffee Mycotoxins
11.3 Ochratoxin A
12 OTA Food Safety
13 Ocratoxin Producers Fungi
13.1 Aflatoxin
14 Conditioning Factors of Micotoxin Occurrence in Coffee
15 Fruit Washing and Separation
16 Dry Coffee Processing
17 Wet Processing of Coffee
18 Coffee Drying
19 Coffee Storage
20 Methods for Determining Ocratoxin A
21 Methods of Mycotoxin Degradation
22 Roasting and Industrialization
23 Caffeine
24 Coffee Bioprotectors
25 Final Considerations
References
Chapter 7: Roasting Process
1 From the Raw to the Roasted Coffee Bean
1.1 General Introduction
1.2 Volatile Compounds and Coffee Flavors
1.3 Roasting Procedures
1.3.1 Coffee Industrialization Processes: Roasting Procedures
1.3.2 Roasting Procedures of Coffee Bean
1.3.3 Dehydration
1.3.4 Roasting
1.3.5 Coffee Cooling
1.3.6 Blending the Coffee
1.3.7 Roast Profile
1.3.8 Relation: Time and Temperature
1.3.9 Roaster Profile Stages
2 Structure Changes of Coffee Bean Cells During Production Roast of Specialty Coffee
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Experimental Procedures and Raw Material of the Study
2.2.1 Results and Discussion
2.3 Final Considerations
3 Roasting for Specialty Coffee
3.1 General Introduction
3.2 Understanding the Raw Materials
3.2.1 Think About Different Situations in Roasting
3.2.2 The Importance of Cupping
3.2.3 Coffee Information
3.2.4 Recently Fermentation Process Affects Roasting Even More
3.3 Make the Most of Raw Materials
3.3.1 Roast Levels
3.3.2 Flow of Roasting and Condition of Green Beans
3.3.3 Understanding the Endothermic Reaction
3.3.4 The Basic Idea of Specialty Coffee Roasting with Utilizing Hot Air
3.3.5 Summary of Basic of Roasting
3.3.6 (For Reference) The Practice of Sample Roasting with The Basic Roasting Method
3.4 Practice of Specialty Coffee Roasting
3.4.1 Practice of Roasting and The Sense of Speed
3.4.2 Yellow Point
What is Yellow Point?
3.4.3 The Importance of Dual Pressure
3.4.4 The Importance of Measurement
Moisture Levels and Density
Roast Color
Water Activity
3.4.5 How to Make and Adjust a Roasting Plan
3.5 Final Considerations
References
Chapter 8: Physical Classification and Sensory Coffee Analysis
1 General Introduction
2 Coffee Classification in Brazil
2.1 Physical Classification: Types and Defects
3 Coffee Classification by Type in Brazil
4 Coffee Defects Default Setting
4.1 Coffee Defect: Black Grain
4.2 Coffee Defect: Green Grain
4.3 Coffee Defect: Burnt Grain
4.4 Coffee Defect: Grain Water Damage
4.5 Coffee Defect: Brocade Grain
4.6 Coffee Defect: Grain Shell
4.7 Coffee Defect: Broken Grain
4.8 Coffee Defect: Natural and Sailor
4.9 Coffee Defect: Barks, Stones and Sticks
5 Classification for Quality Characteristics
5.1 Structure of Coffee Fruit and the Shape of the Broad Bean
5.2 Sieves: Separation by Grain Size
6 Sensory Analysis of Coffee, Protocols and Procedures
6.1 Sensory Analysis History
6.2 Brazilian Official Classification Method (COB)
6.3 Evolution of Sensory Analysis for Coffee with the COB Protocol
6.4 Specialty Coffee Association Protocol—SCA
6.5 Application and Use of the Cup of Excellence (COE) Protocol
7 Sensorial Analysis Technic
7.1 Temporal Mastery of Sensory Sensations
7.2 Flash Profile
7.3 Check All That Apply—CATA
7.4 Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (ADQ)
8 Preparation of Sensory Profiles for Special Coffee
9 General Considerations About Sensory Profile
References
Chapter 9: Trends in Specialty Coffee
1 Speciality Coffee in China
1.1 General Introduction
1.2 The Story of China and Coffee
1.3 The Development of Coffee in China’s Consumer Market
1.4 When Coffee Meets Capital
1.4.1 Summary of China Coffee Investment Events
1.4.2 Luckin Coffee, Favored by Capital, Has Successfully Raised $0.2 Billion in B Round
1.5 The Development of Brazil Speciality Coffee in China
1.6 Final Considerations
2 Speciality Coffee in Japan
2.1 General Introduction
2.2 Expanding New Horizons and New Partnerships—Meeting Brazil
2.3 Understanding Fermentation Coffee
2.4 The Essence of Fermented Coffee
2.5 Brewing Fermentation Process Coffee with Tetsu Kasuya
2.6 Espresso Extraction of Fermentation Coffee with Yoshikazu Iwase
2.7 Final Considerations
References
