Probiotics, Prebiotics, Synbiotics, and Postbiotics: Human Microbiome and Human Health

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Current State of Knowledge Regarding the Human Microbiome Structure, Function, and Diversity
Impact of Dietary Habits, Ethnicity, and Geographical Provenance in Shaping Human Gut Microbiome Diversity
1 Introduction
2 Significance of GM
2.1 Antimicrobial Protection
2.2 Nutrients Metabolism
2.3 Immunomodulation
2.4 Metabolism of Various Drugs and Xenobiotics
2.5 Faecal Microbiota Transplantation
3 Dietary Habits and Their Influence on the Gut Microbiome
4 Role of Ethnicity in Shaping Gut Microbiome
5 Does Geographical Variation Impact GM?
6 Conclusion
References
Methods Used for Studying Human Microbiome
1 Introduction
2 Methods Used for Studying Human Microbiome
2.1 Sample Collection
Sample Collection to Study the Skin Microbiome
Sample Collection to Study the Gut Microbiome
Sample Collection Methods for Assessment of Microbiome at Various Body Sites
2.2 Methods for Taxonomic and Functional Profiling of the Microbiome
Metabolic Profiling to Get Insights of Human Microbiome
Experimental Methods to Examine Host-Microbiome Interactions In Vitro and Ex Vivo
Use of Model Organisms to Study the Microbiome
Culture-Dependent Methods for Characterisation of Human Microbiome
High-Throughput Methods for Assessing Human Microbiome
3 Summary and Future Prospective
References
Factors Affecting the Composition of the Human Microbiome
1 Introduction
2 Influence of Diet on the Saliva and Gut Microbiome
3 Dysbiosis Based on Smoking and Alcohol Consumption
4 Influence of Environmental Factors
5 Influence of Antibiotics, Age, and BMI
6 Restoration of the Microbiome for Disease Treatment
7 Conclusion
References
Part II: Correlation of the Human Microbiome to Specific Health/Disease Conditions
Mapping the Microbial Metabolites in Metabolic Disorder with Special Reference to Type-2 Diabetes
1 Introduction
2 The Gut Derived Microbial Metabolites
2.1 Short Chain Fatty Acid (SCFAs)
2.2 Medium Chain Fatty Acids (MCFAs)
2.3 Long Chain Fatty Acid (LCFAs)
2.4 Branched Chain Fatty Acids (BCFAs)
2.5 Branched Chain Amino Acid (BCAA)
2.6 Trimethylamine (TMA)
3 Mapping Microbiota and Their Metabolites
4 Conclusion and Way Forward
References
Human Microbiome in Malnutrition
1 Introduction
2 Early Life Factors and Gut Microbiota
3 Birth Pattern Has Its Impact on the Development of Malnutrition
4 Gut Microbiota Under Malnutrition Condition
5 Dietary Fats and the Gut Microbiota
6 Gut Microbiota Modulation by Diet and Its Relation with Malnutrition
7 Gut Microbiota Modulation by Prebiotics and Its Relation with Obesity
8 Treating Obesity with the Help of Probiotics
9 Probiotics and Their Relation with Malnutrition
10 Genetics and Nutrient Deficiency in Malnutrition
11 The Genetics of Obesity
12 Conclusion
References
Association of Probiotics and Prebiotics with Human Microbiome and the Functioning of Immune System
1 Introduction
2 Innate Immune System
3 Effect of Innate Immune System on Human Microbiota
4 Role of Gut Microbiota in Immunity
5 The Role of Probiotics and Prebiotics in Immune System
6 Metabolism and Immune System
7 Role of Micronutrients
8 Role of Environmental Factors on Immune Systems
9 Conclusion
References
Human Microbiome and the Susceptibility to Infections
1 Introduction: Human Microbiome
2 Microbial Interactions
3 Quorum Sensing (QS) in Microbiome
4 Human Microbiome
4.1 Skin Microbiome
4.2 Oral Microbiome
4.3 Respiratory Microbiome
4.4 Placental Microbiome
4.5 Intestinal (Gut) Microbiome
4.6 Vaginal Microbiome
5 Human Microbiome and the Immune System
6 Human Microbiome: Susceptibility to Infections
6.1 Dysbiosis of Microbiota
Antibiotic Therapy
Emergence of Antibiotic Resistance
7 Human Microbiome in Health and Disease
8 Conclusions
References
Human Microbiome and the Neurological Disorders
1 Introduction
2 Neurological Disorders Associated with Microbiome
3 Alzheimer´s Disease
4 Parkinson´s Disease
5 Huntington´s Disease
6 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
7 Multiple Sclerosis
8 Schizophrenia
9 Dysbiosis and Neurological Disorders
10 Cause of Dysbiosis
11 Stress
12 Future Direction
References
Exploring the Unexplored Arena: Butyrate as a Dual Communicator in Gut-Brain Axis
1 Introduction
2 Serotonin: A Critical Signaling Regulator
3 Appetite Related Hormones
4 Gut Microorganisms: The Autocrats
5 Microbial Metabolites as Communicator Between Gut-Brain Axis
5.1 Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFA)
5.2 SCFA Signaling Through Receptors
6 Butyrate
6.1 Biosynthesis of Butyrate
6.2 Butyrate in Influencing the Blood-Brain Barrier
7 Role of Butyrate in Neurological and Neuropsychological Disorders
8 Conclusion
References
Human Microbiome and Lifestyle Disorders
1 Introduction
2 Factors Affecting Lifestyle Disorders
2.1 Maternal Reasons and Postnatal Factors
2.2 Diet
2.3 Tobacco and Alcohol Consumption
2.4 Medications
3 Various Lifestyle Diseases or Disorders
3.1 Obesity
3.2 Diabetes Mellitus
3.3 Preterm Low Birth Weight
Bacterial Spreading
Hematogenous Dissemination of Inflammatory Products
Role of the Fetomaternal Immune Response
3.4 Infective Endocarditis
3.5 Stress Disorders
4 Conclusion
References
Correlation of Human Microbiome and Immune Functioning with COVID-19 Infections: An Overview
1 Introduction
2 A Healthy Human Microbiome
2.1 Skin Microbiota
Diversity in the Microbiome of the Skin at Various Body Sites
2.2 Oral Microbiota
Region of Oral Microbiota
Saliva
Soft Tissue Surface
Hard Tissue Surface
2.3 Nasopharyngeal Microbiota
2.4 Gut Microbiota
Gut Microbiota Composition
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Role of Gut Microbiota in Metabolism
The Microbiome of the Lungs and the Airways
2.5 Vaginal microbiome
Lactobacillus-Dominated Vaginal Microbiota
Other Types of Vaginal Microbiota
3 COVID-19
3.1 Changes in Gut Microbiota in COVID-19
Changes in Bacterial Community
Changes in the Fungal Community
3.2 Changes in the Gut-Lung Axis in COVID-19
3.3 Changes in the Respiratory Tract Microbiome in COVID-19
4 Changes in Immune Functioning in COVID-19
4.1 Changes in Innate Immunity
4.2 Changes in Adaptive Immune Response
5 Future Prospective
5.1 Faecal Microbial Transplantation for COVID-19
5.2 Uses Probiotics and Prebiotics for COVID-19
6 Conclusion
References
Exploring the Pathoprofiles of SARS-COV-2 Infected Human Gut-Lungs Microbiome Crosstalks
1 Introduction
1.1 SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 Associated Symptoms of the Human Gut and Lungs Infection
2 Pathoprofiles of SARS-CoV-2 Associated Disruption of the Human Gut-Lungs Microbiome Crosstalk
3 SARS-CoV-2 Allied Disruption of the Human Gut Microbiome: Case Studies
4 SARS-CoV-2 Associated Disruption of the Human Lungs Microbiome: Case Studies
5 Disruption of Host Immunity Due to Loss of Human Gut-Lungs Microbiome Crosstalks
6 Role of Probiotics in COVID-19
7 Conclusion
References
Role of Human Microbiome in Cardiovascular Disease: Therapeutic Potential and Challenges
1 Introduction
2 Gut Microbiota and the Risk of CVD
2.1 Pro-, Pre-, and Synbiotics from the View of Gut Microbiome in CVD
3 Therapeutic Potentials of Digestive Microbiome in Cardiovascular Diseases
3.1 Challenges and Caveats of Using Gut Microbiome to Determine Risk Towards Cardiovascular Diseases
4 Future Perspectives and Conclusion
References
The Human Microbiome and Respiratory Diseases
1 Introduction
2 Lung Microbiota Study
3 Gut-Lung Axis
4 Bronchial Asthma and Microbiota
5 Conclusion
References
Part III: Manipulation of the Human Microbiome for Better Health
Probiotics: An Emerging Strategy for Oral Health Care
1 Introduction
2 Dental Plaque Biofilm
3 Paradigm Shift of Treatment Strategy in Oral Diseases
4 Probiotics: Emerging Treatment Strategy in Oral Health
5 Mechanism of Action of Probiotics (in Oral Health)
5.1 Direct Action
Antimicrobial Mechanism
Antiplaque Mechanism
5.2 Indirect Action
Antioxidant Mechanism
Anti-Inflammatory Mechanism
5.3 Immune Modulation
Specific Immune Response on Oral Mucosal Immune System
Non-specific Immune Response
5.4 Miscellaneous
6 Oral Probiotics: Methods of Delivery
7 Probiotics and Dental Caries
7.1 Role of Probiotics in Dental Caries
7.2 Mechanism of Action of Probiotics (in Dental Caries)
Direct Action (Antimicrobial and Anti-Plaque Mechanisms)
Indirect Action (Immuno-Modulatory Mechanisms)
7.3 New Approach
Bacterial Interference with Signaling Mechanisms
Targeted Antimicrobial Therapy (STAMP) Technology
Designer Probiotics
8 Probiotics and Periodontitis
8.1 Role of Probiotics in Periodontitis
Direct Action (Antimicrobial and Anti-Plaque Mechanisms)
Indirect Action
Immune Modulation
8.2 Future Approach
9 Probiotics and Halitosis
9.1 Role of Probiotics in Halitosis
10 Role of Fungi in Oral Diseases
11 Prospects
12 Limitations
13 Conclusion
References
Dietary Modulation of the Nervous and Immune System: Role of Probiotics/Prebiotics/Synbiotics/Postbiotics
1 Introduction
2 Prebiotics, Probiotics, Synbiotics, and Postbiotics
2.1 Prebiotics
2.2 Probiotics
2.3 Synbiotics
2.4 Postbiotics
3 Corelation between diet and gut microflora
4 Factors That influence gut bacterial composition
5 The Gut Microbiota and Brain Axis
6 Neurotrophic Factors and Gut Microbiome
7 Neuroinflammation, Mucosal Immunity, and Gut Microbiome
8 The Gut Microbiota and Immune System
9 Role of Gut Microbes in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases
10 Dysbiosis of Gut Microbiota and its Relation with Neuroimmune and Neuroinflammatory Diseases
10.1 Parkinson´s Disease
10.2 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis
10.3 Schizophrenia
10.4 Autism Spectrum Disorder
10.5 Alzheimer´s Disease
11 Diet as an Adjuvant for Neurological Disease Prevention and Mental Health Maintenance
12 Conclusion
References
Probiotics for Skin Health
1 Skin: A Protective Shield
2 Strategies to Keep Skin Healthy and Maintenance of Skin Microbiota Homeostasis
3 Probiotics: Potential for Skin-Care
4 Mechanism(s) of Action of Probiotics
5 Methods to Use Probiotics for the Maintenance for Skin Health
6 Characteristics for a Product to Be Considered Probiotic for Topical Applications
7 Conclusion
References
Human Microbiome and Autism-Spectrum Disorders
1 Introduction
2 Gut Microbes and ASD
3 Gut Dysbiosis and ASD
4 Role of Probiotics and Prebiotics on ASD Symptoms
5 ASD and Dietary Interventions
5.1 Gluten Free Casein Free Diet (GFCF)
5.2 Ketogenic Diet
5.3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA)
5.4 Vitamins and Minerals
5.5 Camel Milk
6 Therapeutics and ASD
7 Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT) Therapy
8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Psychobiotics as an Emerging Category of Probiotic Products
1 Introduction
2 History of Psychobiotics
3 Key Milestones in the Area of Psychobiotics
4 Scope of Psychobiotics
5 Mechanism of Action of Psychobiotics
6 Psychobiotic Properties of Gut Microbes
7 Psychobiotics for the Treatment of Mental Illness
8 Psychobiotics for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative and Neurodevelopment Disorder
9 Physiological Effects of Psychobiotics
10 Effect of Psychobiotics on Immune System
11 Risk of Psychobiotics Administration Suspension
12 Commercial Status
13 Future Directions: Psychobiotics Beyond Prebiotics and Probiotics
14 Conclusion
References
Probiotics for Vaginal Health
1 Introduction
2 Vaginal Microbiota
3 Bacteria and Fungi
4 Major Factors Affecting VMB Composition
4.1 Ethnicity
4.2 Menstrual Cycle
4.3 Lifestyle
4.4 Immune System´s Effect on VMB
4.5 Disorders/Dysbiosis of Vaginal Infections and Antimicrobial Therapy
4.6 Probiotics
4.7 Vaginal Microbiota Impact on Health and Changes Across Life Span
4.8 Childhood and Adolescence/Puberty Phase
4.9 Probiotics During Childhood and Adolescence/Puberty
4.10 Reproduction and Fertility Phase
4.11 Probiotics During Reproduction and Fertility
4.12 Pregnancy Phase
4.13 Probiotics During Pregnancy
4.14 Menopause and Postmenopause Phase
4.15 Probiotics During Menopause and Postmenopause
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
Interactions Between Microbial Therapeutics and the Endogenous Microbiome
1 Introduction
2 Interactions Between Probiotics and the Endogenous Microbiome
2.1 Probiotics as a Treatment for Gastrointestinal Disorders
2.2 Probiotic Effects on Mental Health and Neurological Disorders
2.3 The Effects of Probiotics on Cancer Treatment and Progression
2.4 Impact of Microbiome Heterogeneity of Probiotic Efficacy
2.5 Colonization-Dependent Probiotic Mechanisms of Action
2.6 Colonization-Independent Probiotic Effects
2.7 What Are the Safety Concerns of Probiotics?
3 Interactions Between Microbiome Transplants and the Endogenous Microbiome
3.1 Factors Influencing Engraftment of Live Microbiome Transplants
3.2 Safety Concerns Regarding Microbiome Transplantation
4 Next-Generation Microbial Therapeutics
4.1 Bacteriophage Therapy
4.2 Next-Generation Probiotics
5 Postbiotics
5.1 Classes of Postbiotics and Accompanying Mechanisms of Action
6 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Applied and Translational Aspects
Bacillus Endospore Probiotics Are a Promising Intervention for Mitigation of Metabolic Endotoxemia
1 Introduction
2 Causes and Pathophysiology
2.1 Chronic Alcohol Consumption
2.2 Diet-Induced Low Microbial Diversity in the Microbiome
2.3 Chronic Smoking
2.4 Obesity and High-Fat Diet
2.5 Periodontal Disease
2.6 Aging
3 Diseases That Can Result from Low-Dose, Chronic Endotoxemia
3.1 Atherosclerosis
3.2 Diabetes and Insulin Resistance
3.3 Obesity
4 Solutions for Metabolic Endotoxemia
4.1 Secretory IgA
4.2 Mucin
4.3 Modulating the Microbiome
5 Conclusions
References
Characterization and Authentication of Probiotic Preparations
1 Introduction
2 Genus, Species, and Strain Identity of the Process Organism
2.1 Conventional Methods
2.2 Molecular/Genetic Methods
3 Microbial Load of the Product at the Time of Manufacturing and at the End of Shelf-Life
4 Biological Effect
5 Final Comments
References
A Survey of Commercially Available Probiotics
1 Introduction
2 Commercially Available Microorganisms
3 Probiotics Categorization and Regulation
4 Microbial Identification
5 Probiotic Labeling
5.1 Concerns on Product Labeling
6 Probiotic Quality
7 Survey of Compositional Analysis of Commercial Probiotic Formulations
8 European Market Based Studies
9 UK Market Based Studies
10 US Market Based Studies
11 Asian Market Based Studies
11.1 The Indian Market Based Studies
12 Viable Cells Count
13 Product Purity
14 Overcoming Challenges in Probiotic Formulations
15 Conclusions
16 Future Prospects
References
Regulatory Aspects Relevant to Probiotic Products
1 Introduction
2 Features of Probiotics
2.1 Nature and Challenges Associated with Probiotics
2.2 Safety Concerns
2.3 Environmental Risk
3 Global Regulations
3.1 Report by the FAO and WHO Assessing the Safety of Probiotics in Foods and Beverages
Screening of Microorganism
In Vitro Evaluation of Probiotic Potential
Animal and Human Studies In Vivo
Labelling of Probiotic-Based Foods and Drinks with Health Claims
3.2 Regulatory Guidelines for Probiotics in Japan
3.3 Regulatory Guidelines for Probiotics in Europe
3.4 Regulatory Guidelines of Probiotics in USA
4 Current Indian Regulations
4.1 Recommendations Made by the ICMR for Assessing Probiotics in Food (Ganguly et al. 2011)
4.2 Criteria from the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) for Probiotic Products to Be Sold in India
5 Issues Pertaining to Regulatory Aspects
6 Future Prospects
7 Conclusions
References
Probiotic Identity from Spore: Focus on Bacillus Probiotics
1 Introduction
2 Probiotics
2.1 Health Benefits of Bacillus Probiotics
Bacillus Probiotics and Intestinal Health
Anti-microbial Activity
Host Metabolism
Immuno-Modulatory Effects
Anti-oxidative and Anti-inflammatory Effects
Effects on Brain and Cognitive Functions
3 Probiotic Product Specifications: Need for Global Guidelines
4 Do We Get What We Pay for: A Probiotic Label Conundrum?
4.1 Probiotic Identity
4.2 Viable Spore Count
5 Bacillus Spore and Its Structure
5.1 Bacillus Sporulation
5.2 Spore Structure
6 DNA Isolation
6.1 Physical, Chemical, and Enzymatic Methods
6.2 Mechanical Methods
6.3 Lab-on-Chip Methods
7 DNA Isolation from Nucleospin Soil Genomic DNA Kit
8 Establishment of Strain Identity
8.1 16S rRNA and Partial GyrA Sequencing
Phylogenetic Tree
Percent Identity Matrix
8.2 RAPD Fingerprinting
8.3 qPCR
9 Conclusion
References