Primates in Flooded Habitats: Ecology and Conservation

Cover
Half-title
Title page
Copyright information
Table of contents
List of Contributors
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Part I Introduction
1 Editors’ Introduction
2 Flooded and Riparian Habitats in the Tropics: Community Definitions and Ecological Summaries
Introduction
Definition of Habitats
Lowland Tropical Floodplain Forest
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Asia
Riverine and Gallery Forest
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Asia
River Delta
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Asia
Swamp Forest
Palm Swamp
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Asia
Forest Swamp
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Southeast Asia
Peat Swamp
Africa
Asia
Backswamp
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Asia
Mangroves
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Asia
Oxbow Lakes
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Asia
Reedbed/Papyrus
Definition
Seasonally Flooded Grassland
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Asia
Intertidal Zones
Definition
Neotropics
Africa
Asia
Conclusion
3 Fossil Primates from Flooded Habitats: The Antiquity of an Association
Introduction
Modern Primates
Non-Hominin Primates in the Fossil Record
Fossil Hominins
Conclusions
4 Comparison of Plant Diversity and Phenology of Riverine and Mangrove Forests...
Introduction
Study Sites and Vegetation Survey
Riverine Forest
Mangrove Forest
Dryland Forest: Lowland Mixed Dipterocarp Forest
Overall Vegetation in Flooded Forests
Riverine Forest
Mangrove Forest
Dryland Forest: Lowland Mixed Dipterocarp Forest
Comparison Between Flooded and Dryland Forests
Plant Diversity
Phenological Patterns of Fruits
Discussion
Conclusions and Recommendations
Acknowledgements
Note
5 Lemurs in Mangroves and Other Flooded Habitats
Introduction
Mangroves on Madagascar
Lemurs in Mangroves
Lemurs in Other Flooded Habitats
Comparison of Nutritional Quality Between Upland Forest Plants, Swamps and Mangroves
Discussion
Acknowledgements
6 Survey and Study Methods for Flooded Habitat Primatology
Introduction
General Accessibility
Moving in Mud
Moving in Leaves
Surveys in Swamps
Working from Canoes
Cutting and Maintaining Trails
Protection and Clothing
Measuring Habitat and Resources
Marking Trees When Water Heights Vary Over Time
Fruit Traps
Ground Fruit Surveys in Swampy Areas
Studying Food Resources in Mangroves
Technological Advances: Remote Detection of Primates
Camera Traps
Remote Sensing with Acoustic Surveys
Remote Sensing with Satellite Tags
Remote Sensing with Drones
Final Words
Acknowledgements
Part II Primates of Mangrove and Coastal Forests
7 Worldwide Patterns in the Ecology of Mangrove-living Monkeys and Apes
Introduction
Questionnaire
Results
Mangrove Use Extent: Ranging and Refuging
Movement: Navigating Available Strata
Mangrove Foraging Ecology
Drinking
Primate Group Sizes in Mangroves
Mangrove-Adapted Behaviour and Innovation
Conclusion
8 Mangrove-living Primates in the Neotropics: An Ecological Review
Mangrove Ecology and Distribution in Neotropics
Neotropical Primates in Mangroves
Studies of Primates in Neotropical Mangroves
Summary and Future Directions for Research
9 The Role of Tools in the Feeding Ecology of Bearded Capuchins Living in Mangroves
Introduction
Mangrove Colonization by Capuchin Monkeys
Feeding Ecology and Tool Use of Bearded Capuchins Living in Non-flooded Habitats
Tool-Use Behaviour in Mangroves
Conclusions
10 Use of Mangrove Habitats by Sapajus flavius Assessed by Vocalization Surveys
Introduction
Methods
Study Site and Animals
Results and Discussion
Acknowledgements
11 Mangrove Forests as a Key Habitat for the Conservation of the Critically...
Introduction
Methods
Study Area
Procedures
Results
Discussion
Acknowledgements
12 Primates of African Mangroves
African Mangroves
Literature Review
Mangrove Distribution and Primate Species Richness
Occupancy Types
Results
Case Studies of Mangrove Use
Historical Occupancy
Chlorocebus sabaeus, West African Mangroves
Papio papio, Senegal
Cercopithecus mitis albotorquatus, Kenya
Seasonal, Occasional or Opportunistic Occupancy
Cercocebus torquatus, Central African Mangroves
Chlorocebus pygerythrus, from Senegal to Kenya
Papio cynocephalus, Kenyan Coast
Potential Novel Extension of Range or Habitat Shift
Cercopithecus mona, Niger Delta and Cameroonian Creeks
Chlorocebus sabaeus, ‘Mangrove Monkey’, West African Mangroves
Gorilla gorilla gorilla, Gabon
Piliocolobus kirkii, Zanzibar Archipelago, Tanzania
Discussion
13 Feeding Ecology of the Proboscis Monkey in Sabah, Malaysia, with Special Reference to Plant Species-Poor Forests
Introduction
Methods
Study Site
Vegetation and Phenology Surveys
Study Animals
Population Distribution Survey
Behavioural Data Collection
Statistical Analysis
Results
Vegetation and Phenology
Proboscis Monkey Distribution Patterns
Feeding Ecology
Overall Observations of Proboscis Monkey Groups
Food Habits
Monthly Variation in Diet
Discussion
Acknowledgements
14 Ebony Langurs in Mangrove and Beach Forests of Java, Bali and Lombok
Introduction
Methods
Results and Discussion
Mangroves, Beach Forests and the Distribution of Langurs
Java’s West Point
Jakarta Bay
West Java’s South Coast
Central Java’s Inland Sea
Java’s Easternmost Corner
West Bali
Northwest Lombok
Ecology of Langurs in Coastal Forests
Conservation and Restoration of Mangroves
Acknowledgements
15 Mangrove: A Possible Vector for Tarsier Dispersal Across Open Ocean
Introduction
Mangrove Habitat within the Extent of Occurrence of Tarsiers
Direct Evidence of Tarsiers in Mangrove
Indirect Evidence that Tarsiers Are Suited to Mangrove Habitat
Morphometric Comparisons of Tarsiers in Mangrove and Non-mangrove Habitat
Discussion
Future Directions
Acknowledgements
16 Primates in the Sundarbans of India and Bangladesh
Introduction
Methods
Results and Discussion
Primate Species Diversity
Distribution and Locality Records
Adaptations
Morphology
Ecology
Conservation Value
Behaviour
Diet
Social Structure
Reproduction
Commensalism
Predators
Human–Monkey Conflict
Rehabilitation
Population Estimates
Conservation
Threats
17 Behavioural Ecology of Mangrove Primates and Their Neighbours
Introduction
Mangrove Distribution and Diversity
Food Resources for Primates
Mangrove Primates
American Primates
African Primates
Asian Primates
Conclusion
Part III Beach Primates
18 Maritime Macaques: Ecological Background of Seafood Eating by Wild Macaques (Macaca fuscata)
Introduction
Methods
Subjects and Data Collection
Nutritional Analyses
Foraging Success
Data Analyses
Results
Seasonality in Seafood Eating
Nutritional Composition of the Seafood
Relationships Between Seafood Eating and Foraging Success
Relationship Between Seafood Eating and the Tidal Cycle
Discussion
Acknowledgements
19 Long-tailed Macaque Stone Tool Use in Intertidal Habitats
Introduction
Conditions for Macaque Stone Tool-use
Tool Use in the Andaman Sea Region
20 The Ecology of Chacma Baboon Foraging in the Marine Intertidal Zone of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa
Introduction
Methods
Results and Discussion
Part IV Swamp Primates
21 Primates and Flooded Forest in the Colombian Llanos
Introduction
Methods
Study Areas
La Macarena Bioregion: Tinigua National Park
Los Llanos Bioregion: Tuparro National Park
San Martín
Results
La Macarena Bioregion: Tinigua National Park
Literature Review
Colombian Squirrel Monkey (S. c. albigena) Use of Flooded Habitats
Los Llanos Bioregion: Tuparro National Park
San Martín
Habitat Use Observations of a S. c. albigena Group
Discussion
Acknowledgements
22 Primates of the South American Pantanal Wetland: Seasonal Effects on Their Habitats and Habits
Introduction
Pantanal Vegetation
Pantanal Primates
Howler Monkeys
Capuchins
Marmosets
Night Monkey
Titis
Conclusions
Research Priorities
Conservation Challenges in the Pantanal
Acknowledgements
23 Endangered Range-restricted Flooded Savanna Titi Monkey Endemics Plecturocebus modestus and P. olallae...
Introduction
Methods
Study Area
Selection of Forest Patches
Threat Assessment
Landscape Metrics
Flooded Areas from 2007 to 2008
Fire Frequency in the Ranges of Titi Monkeys
Roads’ Area of Influence for Future Deforestation
Urban Area of Influence
Results
Plecturocebus modestus Northern Polygon
Plecturocebus modestus Southern Polygon
Plecturocebus olallae Polygon
Discussion
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
24 Use of Swamp and Riverside Forest by Eastern and Western Gorillas
Introduction
Study Areas and Methods
Kahuzi
Moukalaba
Fruit Phenology
Group Movements and Ranges
Gorilla Diet
Results
Use of Cyperus latifolius Swamp by Eastern Lowland Gorillas in Kahuzi
Use of Gallery Forest by Western Lowland Gorillas in Moukalaba
Discussion
Acknowledgements
25 Use of Inundated Habitats by Great Apes in the Congo Basin: A Case Study of Swamp Forest Use by Bonobos at Wamba...
Introduction
Habitat Use of Bonobos at Wamba
Methods
Study Site
Forest Classification
Bonobo Group Tracking
Monitoring Fruit Availability
Analyses: Habitat Selection, Food Categories and Effects of Fruit Availability
Results
Habitat Selection over a Year
Food Consumed in Swamp Forest
Seasonality of Swamp Use and Fruit Availability
Discussion
Mechanisms and Implications of Swamp Use by Bonobos at Wamba
Comparisons Between Bonobo Populations
Comparison with Chimpanzee Populations
Use of Inundated Habitats by Sympatric Chimpanzees and Gorillas
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
26 Differences in Population Density of Orangutan Between Flooded and Non-flooded Forests
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Difference Between Flooded and Non-flooded Forests
Difference Between Sumatra and Borneo
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Note
Part V Primates in Freshwater Flooded Forests
27 Primates in Amazonian Flooded Habitats
Introduction
Methods
Results
Habitats Occupied
The Nature and Extent of Current Studies
Discussion
The Influence of Flooded Habitats on the Ecology of Primates
Ubiquity of Use
What We Know We Do Not Know: Research Foci for the Future
Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgements
28 Primate Community Structure at Three Flooded Forest Sites in Guyana
Introduction
Forests of Guiana Shield
Biogeography of Primates in Guyana
Methods
Study Sites
Iwokrama
Upper Essequibo Conservation Concession
Konashen Community Owned Conservation Area (KCOCA)
Survey Methodology
Phenological Monitoring at UECC Site
Behavioural Data Collection: C. chiropotes at Southern Sites
Results
Primate Observations at Turtle Mountain
Primate Observations in Southern Guyana
Phenology of Flooded Forests
Discussion
Conclusion
29 Primates of the Peat Swamp in Borneo and Sumatra
Introduction
Primate diversity and population density in TPSF
Orangutans
Gibbons
Mentawai Species
Red Langurs
Proboscis Monkeys
Nocturnal Species
Primate behavioural Ecology in TPSF
Feeding Ecology and Fallback Foods
Ranging
Adaptations to Smoke Caused by Fires in TPSF
Predators
Summary of adaptations to TPSF
Conservation/Conclusions
30 Primates of Africa’s Coastal Deltas and Their Conservation
Introduction
Deltas
Definition
Africa’s Inland Deltas
Africa’s Coastal Deltas
Approach and Methods
Results
Primate Conservation in Africa’s Coastal Deltas
Kenya’s Tana Delta
Nigeria’s Niger Delta
Some Observations
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
31 Primates of Riverine and Gallery Forests
Introduction
What are Gallery Forests?
What are Riverine Forests?
Gallery and Riverine Forests in the Neotropics
Gallery and Riverine Forests in Madagascar
Gallery and Riverine Forests in Africa
Gallery and Riverine Forests in Asia
Primate Conservation in Gallery and Riverine Forests
Summary
32 Life-history Traits and Group Dynamic in Black and Gold Howler Monkeys in Flooded Forests of Northern Argentina
Introduction
Methods
Study Sites
Life-History Traits at the Flooded Forest
Results
Discussion
Acknowledgements
33 Riverine Red-tails: Preliminary Data on Forest Guenons in a Savanna Woodland
Introduction
Methods
Study Area
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Results and Discussion
Group Size and Population Density
Resource Exploitation
Home Range Size
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
34 Consequences of Lakeside Living for the Diet and Social Ecology of the Lake Alaotran...
Acknowledgements
35 Non-leaping Slow Lorises: Ecological Constraints of Living in Flooded Habitats
Introduction
Methods
Slow Lorises in Flooded Habitats
Use of the Ground by Javan Slow Lorises
Results and Discussion
Slow Lorises in Flooded Habitat
Mangroves
Freshwater Swamp Forest
Peat swamp
Riverine forest
Terrestrial Movement by Javan Slow Lorises
Conclusion and Avenues for Further Research
Acknowledgements
Part VI Conservation Case Studies
36 Dams: Implications of Widespread Anthropic Flooding for Primate Populations
Introduction
Overview of Impacts
Specific Impacts
Drowning
Habitat Loss
Influx of Human Populations
Rescue Operations
Moving into Adjacent Habitat
Habitat Fragmentation
Conclusion
37 Hapalemur alaotrensis: A Conservation Case Study from the Swamps of Alaotra, Madagascar
Introduction
The Alaotra Wetlands
Drivers of Change
Management and Conservation of the Alaotra Wetlands
Acknowledgments
38 Landscape Genetics Applied to the Conservation of Primates in Flooded Forests...
Introduction
Orangutan Population Structure, Genetic Diversity and Dispersal
Population Decline and Viability
Conservation Measures
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
39 African Flooded Areas as Refuge Habitats
Introduction
Mangroves
Flooded and Swamp Forests
Seasonal Grassland Floodplain
Biodiversity and Soil Quality Analysis
Behavioural Data
Avoiding or Playing with Water
Filtering Drinking Water
Swimming
Staying Near Water
Foraging on Aquatic Food
Discussion
Mangroves as Refuges
Swamp Forests as Refuges
Seasonal Grassland Floodplains
Behaviour in Flooded Habitats
Poor Quality Soils
Conclusions
40 Diversity and Conservation of Primates in the Flooded Forests of Southern Nigeria
Introduction
Classification and Distribution of Flooded Forests in Southern Nigeria
Freshwater Swamp Forest
Niger River Floodplain
Marsh Forest
Mangrove Forest
Conservation Status of Flooded Forests in Southern Nigeria
Apoi Creek Forest Reserve (65 km2) and Regional Marsh Forests
Edumanom Forest Reserve (87 km2) and Upper Orashi River Forest Reserve (90 km2)
Gilli-Gilli Forest Reserve (363 km2)
Osomari Forest Reserve (115 km2) and Taylor Creek Forest Reserve (219 km2)
Stubbs Creek Forest Reserve (310 km2)
Riparian Forests
Proposed Conservation Sites and Forests for Further Investigation
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Note
41 Mamirauá Reserve: Primate-based Flooded Forest Conservation in the Amazon
Introduction
Primate-based Formation of the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve
Community-based Ecotourism and Conservation
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
42 Primates in Flooded Forests of Borneo: Opportunities and Challenges for Ecotourism as a Conservation Strategy
Introduction
The Economics of Ecotourism
Case Studies
Balikpapan Bay
Tanjung Puting
Shifting the Posts on Stakeholder Dynamics
Ecotourism as Part of a Holistic Economic Approach
Undesired Impacts of Ecotourism
Direct Habitat Impacts
Impacts of Visitor Interaction
Developing Responsible Tourism
Towards More Conservation-Oriented ‘Ecotourism’
Tourist Typology: Maximizing Ecotourism Benefits
High-End Foreign Tourists
Volunteers
Lower-Budget Foreign Travellers
Local Visitors
Environmental Education as a Core Tenet for Ecotourism
Future Directions
Acknowledgements
Part VII Conservation, Threats and Status
43 Conservation Value of Africa’s Flooded Habitats to Non-human Primates
Introduction
An Awakening: Apes in the Congo Basin
Flooded Habitats’ Built-in Defence
Diversity of Flooded Habitat Use
Flooded Habitats: Threats and Conservation
Acknowledgements
44 Southeast Asian Primates in Flooded Forests
Introduction
Importance of Flooded Forests for Primates in Southeast Asia
Status of Flooded Forests in Southeast Asia
An Estimation of Flooded Forest Use by Southeast Asian Primates
Species Range as Indication of Potential Flooded Forest Use
Progressive Knowledge on Primate Flooded Forest Use
Limitations to Current Knowledge
Difficulties in Estimating Flooded Forest Occupancy
Underestimation of Flooded Forests Extent
Impact of Flooded Forest Loss
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
45 Conservation of Primates and Their Flooded Habitats in the Neotropics
Introduction
Neotropical Primates in Flooded Forests
Mesoamerica
Primates and Conservation Concerns in Flooded Habitats in Mesoamerica: Country by Country
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
South America
Primates and Conservation Concerns in Flooded Habitats in South America: Country by Country
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Colombia
Ecuador
French Guiana
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Venezuela
Conclusions
References
Index