Cover
Present Knowledge in Food Safety
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Section I Changes in the chemical composition of food through the various stages of the food chain: plants before harvest
1 Natural toxicants in plant-based foods, including herbs and spices and herbal food supplements, and accompanying risks
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Risk and safety assessment of natural toxins from plants
1.3 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Improper food handling [toxic proteins, glycoalkaloids (...
1.3.1 Toxic proteins
1.3.1.1 Toxic proteins: relevant structural features
1.3.1.2 Toxic proteins: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.3.1.3 Toxic proteins: risk assessment
1.3.2 Glycoalkaloids
1.3.2.1 Glycoalkaloids: relevant structural features
1.3.2.2 Glycoalkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.3.2.3 Glycoalkaloids: risk assessment
1.3.3 Quinolizidine alkaloids
1.3.3.1 Quinolizidine alkaloids: relevant structural features
1.3.3.2 Quinolizidine alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.3.3.3 Quinolizidine alkaloids: risk assessment
1.4 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Famine food (cyanogenic glycosides, lathyrogens)
1.4.1 Cyanogenic glycosides
1.4.1.1 Cyanogenic glycosides: relevant structural features
1.4.1.2 Cyanogenic glycosides: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.4.1.3 Cyanogenic glycosides: risk assessment
1.4.2 Lathyrogens
1.4.2.1 Lathyrogens: relevant structural features
1.4.2.2 Lathyrogens: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.4.2.3 Lathyrogens: risk assessment
1.5 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Sensitive individuals (allergens, fava glucosides, and FCs)
1.5.1 Allergens
1.5.2 Fava pyrimidine glycosides
1.5.2.1 Fava pyrimidine glycosides: relevant structural features
1.5.2.2 Fava pyrimidine glycosides: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.5.2.3 Fava pyrimidine glycosides: risk assessment
1.5.3 Furocoumarins
1.5.3.1 Furocoumarins: relevant structural features
1.5.3.2 Furocoumarins: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.5.3.3 Furocoumarins: risk assessment
1.6 Situations where “normal” dietary intake of natural toxins from plant-based foods may raise concern
1.6.1 Glucosinolates
1.6.1.1 Glucosinolates: relevant structural features
1.6.1.2 Glucosinolates: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.6.1.3 Glucosinolates: risk assessment
1.6.2 Alkenylbenzenes including allylalkoxybenzenes and 1-propenylalkoxybenzenes
1.6.2.1 Alkenylbenzenes: structural features
1.6.2.2 Alkenylbenzenes: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.6.2.3 Alkenylbenzenes: risk assessment
1.6.3 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
1.6.3.1 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: structural features
1.6.3.2 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.6.3.3 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: risk assessment
1.7 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Switching varieties [grayanotoxins (GTXs), anisatin, and...
1.7.1 Grayanotoxins
1.7.1.1 Grayanotoxins: structural features
1.7.1.2 Grayanotoxins: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.7.1.3 Grayanotoxins: risk assessment
1.7.2 Anisatin
1.7.2.1 Anisatin: structural features
1.7.2.2 Anisatin: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.7.2.3 Anisatin: risk assessment
1.7.3 Aristolochic acids
1.7.3.1 Aristolochic acids: structural features
1.7.3.2 Aristolochic acids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.7.3.3 Aristolochic acids: risk assessment
1.8 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Abuse [tropane alkaloids (TAs), opium alkaloids, delta-9...
1.8.1 Tropane alkaloids
1.8.1.1 Tropane alkaloids: structural features
1.8.1.2 Tropane alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.8.1.3 Tropane alkaloids: risk assessment
1.8.2 Opium alkaloids
1.8.2.1 Opium alkaloids: structural features
1.8.2.2 Opium alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.8.2.3 Opium alkaloids: risk assessment
1.8.3 Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
1.8.3.1 Tetrahydrocannabinol: structural features
1.8.3.2 Tetrahydrocannabinol: toxic mode of action and adverse effects
1.8.3.3 Tetrahydrocannabinol: risk assessment
1.9 Adulteration with pharmaceutical substances
1.10 Discussion including existing data gaps and research directions
References
2 Soil, water, and air: potential contributions of inorganic and organic chemicals
2.1 General introduction
2.2 Heavy metals
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Sources of heavy metal contamination
2.2.2.1 Air
2.2.2.2 Water
2.2.2.3 Soil
2.2.3 Incidence
2.2.3.1 Air
2.2.3.2 Water
2.2.3.3 Soil
2.2.4 Remediation and preventive measures
2.3 Pesticides
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Sources of contamination
2.3.2.1 Air
2.3.2.2 Water
2.3.2.3 Soil
2.3.3 Incidence
2.3.3.1 Air
2.3.3.2 Water
2.3.3.3 Soil
2.3.4 Remediation and preventive measures
2.4 Antimicrobials
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Sources of contamination
2.4.2.1 Air
2.4.2.2 Water
2.4.2.3 Soil
2.4.3 Incidence
2.4.4 Remediation and preventive measures
2.5 Plastics
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Sources of contamination
2.5.2.1 Air
2.5.2.2 Water
2.5.2.3 Soil
2.5.3 Incidence
2.5.3.1 Air
2.5.3.2 Water
2.5.3.3 Soil
2.5.4 Remediation and preventive measures
2.6 Other industrial chemicals
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 Sources of contamination
2.6.2.1 Air
2.6.2.2 Water
2.6.2.3 Soil
2.6.3 Incidence
2.6.3.1 Air
2.6.3.2 Water
2.6.3.3 Soil
2.6.4 Remediation and preventive measures
2.7 Uptake of environmental pollutants from air, water, and soil to plant foods
2.8 Human health risk assessment
2.8.1 Introduction
2.8.2 Individual or group health assessments
2.8.2.1 Individual
2.8.2.2 Group
2.8.3 Health risk assessment
2.8.3.1 Acute exposure
2.8.3.2 Long-term exposure
References
3 Agrochemicals in the Food Chain
3.1 Introduction
3.2 In vivo metabolism of agrochemicals
3.3 Regulation of agrochemicals
3.4 Agrochemicals commonly found as residues in foodstuffs
3.5 Types of agrochemicals and modes of action
3.5.1 Cleaning/disinfecting agents
3.5.2 Pesticides
3.5.2.1 Neurotoxins
3.5.2.1.1 GABA-gated chloride channel antagonists
3.5.2.1.2 Chloride channel activators
3.5.2.1.3 Sodium channel modulators
3.5.2.1.4 Voltage-dependent sodium channel blockers
3.5.2.1.5 Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
3.5.2.1.6 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists
3.5.2.1.7 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel blockers
3.5.2.1.8 Octopamine receptor agonists
3.5.2.1.9 Ryanodine receptor modulators
3.5.2.1.10 Selective feeding blockers—Kir channel inhibition
3.5.2.2 Energy metabolism modulators
3.5.2.2.1 Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation
3.5.2.2.2 Mitochondrial complex electron transport inhibitors
3.5.2.3 Insect growth dysregulation
3.5.2.4 Fungicides
3.5.2.4.1 Inhibitors of lipid/steroid/sterol synthesis
3.5.2.4.2 Inhibitors of methionine synthesis
3.5.2.4.3 Multisite action
3.5.2.5 Herbicides
3.5.2.5.1 Cell walls/growth regulation
3.5.2.5.2 Ripening
3.5.2.5.3 Dysregulation of plant metabolism
3.6 Potential points of concern for agrochemical residues in the food chain
3.6.1 The “cocktail effect”
3.6.2 Endocrine disruption
3.6.3 Effects on the microbiome
3.7 Conclusions and potential areas for further study
References
4 Mycotoxins: still with us after all these years
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Compounds of minor public health significance
4.3 Toxins from Fusarium graminearum and related species
4.3.1 Toxins
4.3.2 Management
4.4 Toxins from Fusarium verticillioides and related species
4.4.1 Toxins
4.4.2 Management
4.5 Toxins from Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and related species
4.5.1 Management
4.5.2 Toxins
4.6 Ochratoxin-producing Penicillium and Aspergillus species
4.6.1 Management
4.6.2 Toxins
4.7 Key issues for the next decade
References
Section II Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: animal and milk production
5 Occurrence of antibacterial substances and coccidiostats in animal feed
Chapter points
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Antibacterial drugs in feed
5.2.1 Antimicrobials in feed
5.2.2 Coccidiostats in feed
5.3 Medicated feed production
5.3.1 Cross-contamination during feed production, transport, and storage
5.3.2 Toxicity to nontarget animal species
5.4 Antimicrobial residues in food derived from animals
5.5 Antimicrobial resistance
5.6 Antimicrobial drugs: impact on the environment
5.7 Analytical methodology
5.8 Research gaps and future directions
References
6 Residues relating to the veterinary therapeutic or growth-promoting use and abuse of medicines
6.1 Introduction, general terms, and significance of the topic
6.2 Authorization process and legal uses of veterinary medicines
6.2.1 Types of medicines used in veterinary practice
6.2.2 Types of directorates/authorities
6.2.3 Authorization of the veterinary medicines and feed additives at national and international level
6.2.4 Proper handling and uses, according to label versus off-label use, cascade concept
6.3 Preventing drug residues in food with animal origin
6.3.1 Control of drug residues in foodstuffs, maximum residue limits concept
6.3.2 Determination of withdrawal period after administration of medicines
6.3.3 Responsibilities of authorities, veterinary practitioners, and farmers in prevention of formation of drug residues in...
6.4 Reasons for the drug residues in food of animal origin
6.5 Conclusions and further perspectives
Endnotes
References
Further reading
Section III Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: fishing and aquaculture
7 Marine biotoxins as natural contaminants in seafood: European perspective
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Paralytic shellfish poisoning
7.1.2 Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning
7.1.3 Azaspiracid shellfish poisoning
7.1.4 Amnesic shellfish poisoning
7.2 Analytical methods
7.3 Transition from biological to chemical methods
7.4 Emerging toxins: incidence and present challenges for their control
7.4.1 Cyclic imines
7.4.2 Palytoxins
7.4.3 Brevetoxins
7.4.4 Ciguatoxins
7.4.5 Tetrodotoxins
7.5 Future perspectives
References
8 Pollutants, residues and other contaminants in foods obtained from marine and fresh water
Chapter points
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Main text
8.2.1 Water systems
8.2.1.1 Freshwater (rivers, lakes, etc.) versus marine environments
8.2.1.2 Aquaculture and farmed fish versus wild fish
8.2.2 Risk assessment
8.2.3 Pollutants, residues, and contaminants
8.2.3.1 Veterinary medicines and pesticides
8.2.3.2 Benefits of using veterinary medicines in aquaculture
8.2.3.3 Concerns surrounding excessive-use of veterinary medicines
8.2.4 Persistent organic pollutants
8.2.4.1 The Stockholm Convention
8.2.4.2 Persistent organic pollutants in fish and seafood
8.2.5 Metal(oid)s in fish
8.2.6 Eutrophication
8.2.7 Microplastics and nanoplastics
8.2.7.1 Adsorption of pollutants
8.2.8 Foods produced
8.2.8.1 Fish, shellfish, and other animal species
8.2.8.2 Plant foods: seaweeds, algae, etc
8.2.9 Environmental considerations
8.2.9.1 Environmental risk assessment
8.2.10 Water-table contamination: arsenic in rice as a case study
8.2.11 Risk substitution
8.3 Research gaps and future direction
8.3.1 Risk-benefit analysis and personalized medicine
8.3.2 Risk assessment of mixtures
8.3.3 Microplastics and nanoplastics
8.3.4 Algae
8.3.5 Climate change and impact of flooding
8.3.6 Cross boundary management/considerations
References
9 Antimicrobial drugs in aquaculture: use and abuse
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Importance of aquaculture globally to meet consumer demand for fish
9.1.2 European Union—the world’s biggest importer of aquaculture products
9.1.3 Strategies to reduce import dependence of aquaculture products in European Union: farming of new fish species
9.1.4 Disease a limiting factor for aquaculture necessitates the use of more and new drugs
9.1.5 General use of veterinary drugs
9.1.5.1 Global and aquaculture levels
9.2 Main text
9.2.1 Aquatic animal diseases
9.2.1.1 OIE database in aquatic animal diseases
9.2.1.2 Alien farmed fish species may result in new pathogens being introduced locally
9.2.2 Legislation governing use of veterinary chemicals in aquaculture in European Union, United States, and elsewhere
9.2.2.1 Concepts of acceptable daily intake, maximum residue limit and withdrawal time
9.2.2.2 Hazard analysis and critical control point approaches
9.2.2.3 Surveillance programs and national control systems
9.2.3 Public/consumer health issues
9.2.4 Analytical techniques to identify drug residues
9.3 Research gaps and future directions
References
Section IV Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: manufacture, packaging and distribution
10 Manufacturing and distribution: the role of good manufacturing practice
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Hazard analysis and critical control points and preventive controls
10.3 Preventive controls and recall plans
10.4 Potential sources of chemical hazards during manufacture and distribution*
10.5 Research gaps and future directions
References
11 Global regulations for the use of food additives and processing aids
Chapter Points
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 International scientific and advisory committees
11.1.1.1 Food and Agricultural Organization and the World Health Organization
11.1.1.2 Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
11.1.1.3 JECFA general principles of food additive safety evaluation
11.1.1.4 International Programme on Chemical Safety
11.2 Regulations in different jurisdictions
11.3 Global regulation and safety assessment of food additives and processing aids
11.4 Food additive regulations
11.5 Processing aids regulations
11.6 Research gaps and future directions
References
12 Direct addition of flavors, including taste and flavor modifiers
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of flavors
12.3 Levels of use and uses
12.4 Exposure assessment
12.4.1 Volume-based methods for exposure assessment
12.4.2 Use level–based methods for exposure assessment
12.5 Safety evaluation
12.5.1 Safety evaluation of individual flavor compounds
12.5.2 Safety evaluation of natural flavoring complexes
12.5.3 Safety evaluation of process flavors
12.5.4 Safety evaluation of smoke flavorings
12.6 Examples
12.6.1 Diacetyl: generally recognized as safe implies safe at proposed uses and use levels
12.6.2 Coumarin: carcinogenicity threshold, remarkable species differences, and differences in regulation between the Europ...
12.6.3 Alkenylbenzenes versus naturals containing them: different approach in European Union and United States
12.7 Discussion and conclusions
12.8 Future directions
12.8.1 Intake by children
12.8.2 Use of threshold of toxicological concern for unidentified constituents
12.8.2.1 Reanalysis of the threshold of toxicological concern of 0.15µg/person/day for compounds with a structural alert fo...
12.8.2.2 Exposure assessments
12.8.2.3 Extending the database of available studies for read-across
Endnotes
References
13 Production of contaminants during thermal processing in both industrial and home preparation of foods
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Potential heat toxic compounds
13.2.1 Acrylamide
13.2.2 Furan
13.3 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural
13.3.1 Heterocyclic amines
13.4 Future prospects
Acknowlegdments
Conflicts of interest
References
14 Migration of packaging and labeling components and advances in analytical methodology supporting exposure assessment
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Types of food packaging and labeling
14.1.2 Types of food packaging materials and labels
14.1.2.1 Legislation
14.2 Migration sources (materials, adhesives, printing inks, varnishes, etc.)
14.2.1 Direct migration
14.2.1.1 Definition of migration and its mechanism
14.2.1.2 Migration analysis
14.2.1.2.1 Adhesives
14.2.1.2.2 Varnishes and lacquers
14.2.1.2.3 Wax
14.2.1.2.4 Printing inks
14.2.2 Set-off phenomena
14.3 Components
14.3.1 Intentionally added substances
14.3.2 Nonintentionally added substances
14.4 Analytical techniques
14.4.1 Volatile compounds
14.4.2 Nonvolatile compounds
14.4.3 Metals and nanoparticles
14.5 Research gaps and future directions
References
15 Safety assessment of refillable and recycled plastics packaging for food use
Part A Recycled plastics in food contact applications
15.1 History
15.2 Regulations–Authorization and approvals for recycled plastics and food contact applications
15.3 North America
15.3.1 United States
15.4 Safety criteria
15.4.1 US FDA guidance criteria
15.4.2 Canada/Mexico
15.5 Europe
15.6 South America
15.7 Central America
15.8 Asia-Pacific
15.9 Africa
15.10 Conclusion
Part B Refillable plastic food contact materials
15.11 History and perspective of returnable refillable plastic food containers
15.12 Refillable plastic containers for consumer market
15.13 Shift away from refillable plastic
15.14 Safety and quality of refillable containers
15.15 Flavor carry-over and effects of repeated use on materials
15.16 Contaminants from misuse
15.17 Contamination rate
15.18 Food contact material regulations
15.19 Refillable food contact materials regulations
15.20 United States and Canada
15.21 European Union
15.22 MERCOSUR and South America
15.23 Code of practices
15.24 Microbial safety
15.25 Sniffer detection technology
15.26 Conclusions
References
16 Preventing food fraud
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Overview of food fraud mitigation
16.3 Developing food fraud mitigation plans
16.4 Research gaps and future directions
References
Section V Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: identification of emerging chemical risks
17 Emerging contaminants
17.1 Editorial introduction to Chapters 18–24
Disclaimer
18 Emerging contaminants related to plastic and microplastic pollution
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Food safety risks of microplastic pollution
18.3 Effects of microplastic ingestion on humans and living organisms
18.4 Effects of persistent, bioaccumulative compounds associated with microplastics on humans and living organisms
18.5 Effects of pathogenic microbes carried by microplastics on humans and living organisms
18.6 Research gaps and future directions
Appendix A
Appendix B
References
Further reading
19 Endocrine disruptors
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Mechanism of action and impact of endocrine disruptors on humane health
19.3 Current approaches for testing and assessment of chemicals for their endocrine activity and consequent adverse effects
19.4 Regulation of endocrine disrupting chemicals risk vs hazard based approach dilemma in assessment of endocrine-disrupti...
19.5 Advances in analytical methodology for detection and quantification of endocrine-disrupting chemical in food
19.5.1 Advances in instrumentation
19.5.2 Sample preparation
19.6 Endocrine disruptors in food
19.6.1 Dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs)
19.6.2 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
19.6.3 Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid
19.6.4 Hormonal active growth promoters used in veterinary
19.6.5 Pesticides
19.6.6 Bisphenol A
19.6.7 Phtalates
19.6.8 Phytoestrogens
19.6.9 Zearalenone
19.6.10 Cadmium
19.7 Research gaps and future directions of research in the field of EDC
19.8 Conclusions
References
20 Antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial residues in the food chain
20.1 Introduction
20.2 The lifecycle of antimicrobials in food production
20.3 Antimicrobial residues in foods
20.4 Antimicrobial resistance along the food chain
20.5 Mitigation of antimicrobial resistance risks in food
Disclaimer
References
21 Climate change as a driving factor for emerging contaminants
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Climate change increases the risk of exposure to foodborne contaminants
21.1.1.1 Foodborne pathogens and parasites
21.1.1.2 Algal blooms
21.1.1.3 Heavy metals
21.1.1.4 Mycotoxins
21.2 Conclusion
Disclaimer
Endnotes
References
22 Emerging mycotoxin risks due to climate change. What to expect in the coming decade?
22.1 Important mycotoxins in food
22.2 Factors affecting the production of mycotoxins
22.3 Predicted climate changes and their potential effects on future mycotoxins contamination
22.4 Current analytical techniques and future analytic challenges
22.5 Emerging mycotoxins threats under climate change conditions
22.6 Research gaps and future directions
References
23 Emerging contaminants in the context of food fraud
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Veterinary drugs residues in food
23.3 Food adulteration with extraneous additives
23.4 Illegally produced or counterfeit alcohol
23.5 Definitions and databases
23.6 Early warning systems
23.7 Research gaps and future directions
Disclaimer
References
24 Trends in risk assessment of chemical contaminants in food
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Fundamentals of chemical risk assessment: concepts, principles, methods
24.2.1 Hazard identification
24.2.2 Hazard characterization
24.2.2.1 Benchmark dose modeling
24.2.2. 2 Approach to identifying the genotoxic and carcinogenic potential of chemicals
24.2.2.3 Practical approaches to mixture risk assessment
24.2.3 Exposure assessment
24.2.3.1 Threshold of Toxicological Concern
24.2.3.2 Margin-of-Exposure
24.2.4 Risk characterization
24.3 Risk perception in food safety risk assessment
24.4 Research gaps and future directions
Disclaimer
References
Section VI Changes in pathogenic microbiological contamination of food pre- and post-farm gate/fishing
25 Common and natural occurrence of pathogens, including fungi, leading to primary and secondary product contamination
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Foodborne pathogenic bacteria
25.2.1 Staphylococcus aureus
25.2.2 Clostridium
25.2.2.1 Clostridium botulinum
25.2.2.2 Clostridium perfringens
25.2.3 Bacillus cereus
25.2.4 Listeria monocytogenes
25.2.5 Escherichia coli
25.2.6 Salmonella
25.2.7 Campylobacter
25.2.8 Shigella
25.2.9 Yersinia
25.2.10 Brucella
25.2.11 Cronobacter
25.3 Toxigenic fungi
25.3.1 Aspergillus
25.3.1.1 Aspergillus section Flavi
25.3.1.2 Aspergillus section Circumdati
25.3.1.3 Aspergillus section Nigri
25.3.2 Penicillium
25.3.3 Fusarium
25.3.3.1 Fusarium species producing fumonisins
25.3.3.2 Fusarium species producing deoxynivalenol
25.3.3.3 Fusarium species producing zearalenone
25.4 Routes of contamination
25.4.1 Feces and manure
25.4.1.1 Compost
25.4.2 Seeds
25.4.3 Soil
25.4.4 Dust
25.4.5 Insects and wildlife
25.4.6 Food handlers
25.4.7 Facilities, equipment, and utensils
25.4.8 Drying and storage
25.5 Research gaps and future directions
References
26 Contributions of pathogens from agricultural water to fresh produce
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Agricultural water’s role in produce safety
26.2.1 Outbreaks linked to agricultural water
26.2.2 Microbial water quality standards
26.2.3 Quantitative microbial risk assessment
26.3 Foodborne pathogens and microbial indicators in agricultural waters
26.3.1 Prevalence of foodborne pathogens in agricultural waters
26.3.1.1 Bacterial pathogen prevalence
26.3.1.2 Virus prevalence
26.3.1.3 Parasitic pathogen prevalence
26.3.2 Regional differences on the presence of foodborne pathogens
26.3.3 Environmental impacts on the presence of foodborne pathogens
26.3.3.1 Seasonal differences
26.3.3.2 Temporal variations
26.3.3.3 Spatial variations
26.4 Fate of foodborne pathogens in agricultural waters
26.4.1 Foodborne pathogens survival in water
26.4.1.1 Temperature
26.4.1.2 Sunlight (UV radiation)
26.4.1.3 Nutrients
26.4.1.4 pH
26.4.1.5 Water source
26.4.1.6 Environmental reservoirs—bottom sediments and bank soils
26.4.1.7 Aquatic biota
26.4.2 Foodborne pathogen survival in water distribution systems
26.4.2.1 Biofilms
26.4.2.2 Effect of biofilms in pipe-based irrigation systems
26.4.3 Foodborne pathogen fate during and after application to produce crops
26.5 Agricultural water management and mitigations
26.5.1 Management and testing
26.5.2 Control and water treatment
26.5.3 Corrective actions and measures (before and after using water)
26.6 Conclusions/future needs
References
27 Microbial pathogen contamination of animal feed
Chapter points
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Animal feed and microbial contamination—general concepts
27.3 Potential sources of microbial contamination in feed manufacturing
27.3.1 Feed manufacturing steps as a source of cross-contamination
27.3.2 Rendering
27.3.3 Animal versus plant-derived bacterial contamination in feeds
27.4 Microbial pathogen contamination of feeds—general concepts
27.4.1 Salmonella
27.4.2 Campylobacter
27.4.3 Listeria monocytogenes
27.5 Pathogenic Escherichia coli
27.5.1 Clostridia
27.6 Fungi
27.7 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in feed
27.8 Conclusions and future directions
References
28 Zoonoses from animal meat and milk
Chapter points
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Factors impacting increase in zoonotic incidences worldwide
28.2.1 Population expansion, urbanization, and international trade
28.2.2 Plant-based to animal-based and small-scale to industrialized food production practices
28.2.3 Blurring of the animal–human–environment interface
28.2.3.1 Human-mediated factors impacting the emergence and spread of zoonoses
28.2.3.2 Climate change
28.3 Common foodborne zoonotic agents
28.3.1 Bacteria
28.3.1.1 Bacillus anthracis
28.3.1.2 Brucella spp
28.3.1.3 Campylobacter spp
28.3.1.4 Clostridium spp
28.3.1.5 Pathogenic Escherichia coli group
28.3.1.6 Listeria spp
28.3.1.7 Mycobacterium spp
28.3.1.8 Salmonella spp
28.3.1.9 Staphylococcus spp
28.3.1.10 Yersinia spp
28.3.2 Viruses
28.3.2.1 Hepevirus
28.3.3 Parasites
28.3.3.1 Cryptosporidium parvum
28.3.3.2 Sarcocystis spp
28.3.3.3 Taenia spp
28.3.3.4 Toxoplasma gondii
28.3.3.5 Trichinella spiralis
28.4 Research gaps and future directions
28.4.1 Consumer awareness and education
28.4.2 Detection methods—scope for improvement
Endnotes
References
29 Abattoir hygiene
29.1 Introduction
29.1.1 The role of abattoirs—past and current status
29.2 Veterinary public health
29.2.1 Prevention and control of zoonoses and other meat-borne diseases
29.2.2 Antemortem and postmortem meat inspection
29.3 Prerequisite programs for abattoirs
29.3.1 Layout
29.3.2 Equipment
29.3.3 Ventilation
29.3.4 Veterinary-sanitary requirements
29.4 Animal welfare in abattoir hygiene context
29.4.1 Transport of animals from farm/livestock market to abattoir
29.4.2 Lairage
29.4.3 Stunning
29.5 Slaughter and dressing in abattoir hygiene context
29.5.1 Stunning, sticking, and bleeding of slaughter animals
29.5.2 Dehiding of cattle and small ruminants
29.5.2.1 Legs
29.5.2.2 Head
29.5.3 Scalding, dehairing, singeing, and polishing of pigs
29.5.4 Evisceration
29.5.4.1 Cattle
29.5.4.2 Small ruminants
29.5.4.3 Pigs
29.5.5 Splitting, washing, and dressing of carcasses
29.5.5.1 Cattle
29.5.5.2 Sheep
29.5.5.3 Pigs
29.5.5.4 Carcass dressing
29.5.5.5 Carcass washing
29.5.6 Chilling procedures (carcasses and offal)
29.5.7 Animal by-product utilization
29.5.8 Wastewater management
29.6 Food safety management system in the context of abattoir hygiene
29.6.1 Nonintervention hazard analysis and critical control point
29.6.2 Intervention hazard analysis and critical control point
29.7 Discussions and future directions
29.7.1 Farm-to-chilled carcass approach
29.7.2 Automation and robotics in abattoir
29.7.3 Future perspectives—looking ahead
References
30 Dairy production: microbial safety of raw milk and processed milk products
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Dairy value chain
30.3 Microbiology of raw milk
30.3.1 Pathogenic organisms
30.3.2 Spoilage organisms
30.4 Dairy processing and safety of processed products
30.4.1 Thermal processing and quality of fresh milk products
30.4.1.1 Pasteurized milk
30.4.1.2 Ultra-high temperature (UHT) processed milk
30.4.1.3 Extended shelf life (ESL) milk
30.4.2 Quality of fermented dairy products
30.4.2.1 Microbial quality of cheese
30.5 Hygiene in dairy processing
30.5.1 Sources of contamination in dairy processing
30.5.1.1 Bioaerosols
30.5.1.2 Contaminated water
30.5.1.3 Personnel hygiene
30.5.1.4 Biofilms
30.5.1.5 Sanitization and cleaning in place (CIP)
30.5.1.6 Packaging material
30.6 Risk-based preventative approach to dairy food safety
30.6.1 Microbiological risk assessment and role in dairy food safety
30.6.2 HACCP –based food safety systems
30.7 Gaps and future directions
References
31 Reduction of risks associated with processed meats
Chapter points
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Antimicrobials in processed meat formulations
31.2.1 Nitrate and nitrite
31.2.2 Acids and sodium salts of acids
31.2.3 Plant extracts and essential oils
31.2.4 Bacteriocins and bacteriocin-producing organisms
31.2.5 Bacteriophage
31.2.6 Novel antimicrobial strategies
31.3 Nonthermal processing technologies to reduce risks
31.3.1 High hydrostatic pressure processing
31.3.2 Atmospheric cold plasma
31.3.3 Ultraviolet-C radiation
31.3.4 Other nonthermal processing technologies to improve the safety of processed meats
31.4 Research gaps and future directions
References
32 Pathogens and their sources in freshwater fish, sea finfish, shellfish, and algae
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Microbial hazards associated with fish
32.2.1 Vibrio
32.2.2 Salmonella
32.2.3 Aeromonas
32.2.4 Listeria
32.2.5 Clostridium
32.2.6 Viruses
32.3 Algae
32.4 Source of fish microbial contamination
32.4.1 Preharvest (prefarm gate)
32.4.1.1 Cropping systems
32.4.1.2 Livestock systems
32.4.1.3 Human settlements
32.4.1.4 Industries
32.4.2 Postharvest (postfarm gate)
32.5 Fish, antibiotic resistance, and other public health concerns
32.6 New trends in the detection of microbial hazards
32.6.1 Detection methods
32.6.1.1 PCR based methods
32.6.1.2 Traditional PCR
32.6.1.3 Real-time PCR
32.6.1.4 High-resolution melting
32.6.1.5 Multiplex PCR
32.6.1.6 Next-generation sequencing
32.6.2 Monitoring of microbial safety
32.7 Speculation on future challenges
32.7.1 Climate change and pathogens
References
33 The evolution of molecular methods to study seafood-associated pathogens
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Naturally occurring microbial risks
33.3 Pathogenic vibrios
33.4 Human-introduced pathogens
33.5 The evolution of methods—norovirus and hepatitis A virus
33.6 Evolution of approaches—pathogenic vibrios
33.7 Understanding past outbreaks
33.8 Future directions
References
Section VII Changes in pathogenic microbiological contamination of food throughout the various stages of the food chain post- processing
34 Microbiological safety in food retail
34.1 Introduction
34.2 The importance of defining and agreeing on “What makes food safe” in the eyes of a retailer
34.3 The role of HACCP-based food safety management systems and due diligence in retail
34.4 Manufacturing standards—driving food safety or confusion?
34.5 Testing doesn’t make food safe
34.6 Managing food safety risks in a store environment and the impact that the growth of online and home delivery has on re...
34.6.1 Temperature controls
34.6.2 Date marking
34.6.3 Other considerations in a retail store environment
34.6.4 Online shopping and home delivery
34.7 Consumer-facing communication, from packaging to marketing, and its role in maintaining food safety, including product...
34.7.1 Consumer preparation instructions
34.7.2 Consumer storage instructions
34.7.3 Customer complaints
34.7.4 Recalls
34.8 Conclusions
References
35 Reduction of the microbial load of food by processing and modified atmosphere packaging
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Microbial load reduction in food through hurdle technology
35.3 Homeostatic disturbance of pathogenic bacteria
35.4 Stress shock protein of pathogenic bacteria
35.5 Metabolic exhaustion of pathogenic bacteria
35.6 Reductions of microbial load by modified atmosphere packaging
35.7 Fundamental principles of modified atmosphere packaging
35.8 Passive versus active modified atmosphere packaging
35.9 The effect of gas mixtures on microorganisms/spores
35.10 Conventional and nonconventional gases used in modified atmosphere packaging
35.11 Functions of gases used in modified atmosphere packaging
35.11.1 Carbon dioxide
35.11.2 Oxygen
35.11.3 Nitrogen
35.12 Nonconventional gases used in modified atmosphere packaging
35.13 Limitations of modified atmosphere packaging
35.14 Nonthermal inactivation methods for reducing foodborne pathogens
35.14.1 Ultrasound
35.14.2 Pulsed electric fields
35.14.3 High hydrostatic pressure
35.14.4 Cold plasma
35.15 Risk assessment, microbial modeling and bacterial community dynamic considerations in terms of modified atmosphere pa...
35.16 Present technologies and future trends
35.17 Conclusion
References
36 Food defense: types of threat, defense plans, and mitigation strategies
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Food defense threat
36.2.1 Introduction
36.2.2 The vocabulary associated with threat analysis and the development of mitigation strategies
36.2.3 Industrial spies (espionage)
36.2.4 Extortionists
36.2.5 Saboteurs
36.2.6 Extremists, activists, and cults
36.2.7 Terrorism
36.2.8 Food defense vulnerability and threat assessment
36.3 Food defense mitigation strategies
36.3.1 Research gaps and future direction
References
37 Sampling, testing methodologies, and their implication in risk assessment, including interpretation of detection limits
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Importance of the hazard analysis and critical control points plan and legislation
37.3 Sampling program and plans
37.3.1 Number and size of samples
37.3.2 Selection based on attributes or variables: the decision making process
37.3.3 Two-class sampling plans
37.3.4 Three-class sampling plans
37.4 Testing methodologies: approaches to pathogen detection
37.4.1 Conventional
37.4.2 Rapid methods
37.4.3 Industrial perspective
37.5 Risk assessment: the case of Listeria monocytogenes enumeration
37.5.1 Relevance of the pathogen and challenges for the food industry
37.5.2 Microbiological criteria in current legislation
37.5.3 Interpretation of the results of the sampling plan by variables with three classes for L. monocytogenes
37.5.4 Application in the food industry environment
37.6 Research gaps and future directions
References
Section VIII Current and emerging advances in food safety evaluation: chemicals
38 The risk assessment paradigm for chemicals: a critical review of current and emerging approaches
38.1 Introduction
38.1.1 Critique of the current system
38.1.2 Hazard identification and characterization
38.1.3 Critique of hazard identification
38.1.3.1 False negatives
38.1.3.2 False positives
38.1.3.3 Excess resources
38.1.4 Exposure assessment
38.1.5 Critique of exposure assessment
38.1.5.1 False negatives
38.1.5.2 False positives
38.1.5.3 Excess resources
38.1.6 Rules of use
38.1.7 Critique of rules of use
38.1.7.1 False negatives
38.1.7.2 False positives
38.1.7.3 Excess resources
38.2 Ways forward
38.2.1 The way forward for hazard identification and characterization
38.2.2 The way forward for exposure assessment
38.2.3 The way forward for the rules of use
38.3 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
39 The use of artificial intelligence and big data for the safety evaluation of US food-relevant chemicals
39.1 Introduction
39.1.1 Food safety and food additives
39.1.2 Regulation of food additives
39.1.3 Testing methods
39.2 Materials and methods
39.2.1 Datasets
39.2.2 Statistics
39.2.3 Preliminary validation
39.3 Results
39.3.1 Manual curation categorization
39.3.2 In-training data
39.3.3 Health and environmental endpoints
39.3.4 Confidence level
39.3.5 Performance assessment and preliminary validation
39.4 Discussion
39.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Endnotes
References
40 Potential human health effects following exposure to nano- and microplastics, lessons learned from nanomaterials
40.1 Introduction
40.1.1 Effects of conditions in the gastrointestinal tract on nano- and microplastics
40.1.2 Potential mechanisms of intestinal nano- and microplastics uptake
40.1.3 Nanomaterial uptake following ingestion by humans and rodents
40.1.4 Effects of nano- and microplastics on gastrointestinal epithelium in vitro
40.1.5 Dosimetry in vitro and physiologically based kinetic models for nano- and microplastics
40.1.6 Effects of nano - and microplastics in vivo
40.1.7 Conclusions and future outlook
Acknowledgments
References
41 Exposure assessment: critical review of dietary exposure methodologies—from budget methods to stepped deterministic methods
41.1 Introduction
41.1.1 Screening methods
41.1.1.1 Poundage method
41.1.1.1.1 Method and application
41.1.1.1.2 Advantages and limitations
41.1.1.2 Budget method
41.1.1.2.1 The method and application
41.1.1.2.2 Advantages and limitations
41.1.2 Model diets
41.1.2.1 Global Environment Monitoring System/Food Consumption Cluster Diets
41.1.2.1.1 Method and application
41.1.2.1.2 Advantages and limitations
41.1.2.2 Compiled summary consumption data
41.1.2.2.1 Method and application
41.1.2.2.2 Advantages and limitations
41.1.2.3 The total diet study or market basket method
41.1.2.3.1 Method and application
41.1.2.3.2 Advantages and limitations
41.1.3 Refined methods
41.1.3.1 The duplicate method
41.1.3.1.1 Method and application
41.1.3.1.2 Advantages and limitations
41.1.3.2 Empirical distribution estimate using food consumption surveys
41.1.3.2.1 The methods
41.1.3.2.2 24-h recall
41.1.3.2.3 Food frequency questionnaire
41.1.3.3 Deterministic estimates
41.1.3.3.1 Single-point estimates
41.1.3.3.2 Distribution estimates
41.1.3.3.3 Other refinement options
41.2 Research gaps and future directions
References
42 Exposure assessment: modeling approaches including probabilistic methods, uncertainty analysis, and aggregate exposure f...
Chapter points
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Dietary exposure modeling of individuals
42.2.1 Single compounds
42.2.2 Multiple compounds
42.2.3 Multiple food items per individual
42.3 Tiered approaches in exposure assessment
42.4 Quantifying variability
42.5 Quantifying variability and uncertainty
42.5.1 Simulating variability and uncertainty: two-dimensional Monte Carlo
42.6 Probabilistic models for variability and uncertainty in dietary exposure
42.6.1 Concentrations
42.6.2 Consumptions
42.6.3 Nondietary exposures
42.7 Quantifying uncertainty: alternative models
42.8 Aggregate exposure
42.9 Practical challenges
42.10 International harmonization of methods and data
42.11 Available databases
42.12 Software
42.13 Research gaps and future directions
References
43 Exposure assessment: real-world examples of exposure models in action from simple deterministic to probabilistic aggrega...
Chapter points
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Probabilistic exposure modeling
43.2.1 Available outputs
43.2.2 Exposure methods and time frames of exposure
43.2.3 Assessing uncertainty
43.2.4 Cost-effectiveness
43.3 Advantages of probabilistic exposure modeling
43.4 Challenges of probabilistic exposure modeling
43.5 Data inputs
43.5.1 Data on individual consumption
43.5.2 Recipe data or data on raw commodities
43.5.3 Data on chemical concentrations in food: point values, sample data, ranges/summary data
43.5.4 Data to define the presence of chemicals/additives
43.6 Real-world examples of exposure models in action
43.7 Practical considerations for exposure assessments
43.8 General conceptual approach in probabilistic risk analysis (PRA)
43.9 Comparing exposure results to toxicological endpoints
43.10 Research gaps and future directions
References
44 The role of computational toxicology in the risk assessment of food products
Chapter Points
44.1 What is computational toxicology?
44.2 The role of computers in safety science
44.3 Constructing a model
44.4 Computational techniques
44.5 Qualitative and quantitative modeling
44.6 Exposure modeling
44.7 Predicting apical traditional toxicity endpoints
44.8 Mechanistic toxicity modeling
44.9 Toxicity pathway construction
44.10 Integration of data and data sources
44.11 The future of computational toxicology
References
45 Risk-benefit assessment
Chapter Points
45.1 Introduction
45.1.1 History (background)
45.1.2 Structure and terminology
45.2 Problem definition
45.2.1 Risk-benefit questions
45.2.2 Scenarios
45.2.3 Choice of health effects, food components, and foods
45.2.4 Population of interest
45.2.5 Strength of the evidence
45.2.6 Biomarkers, intermediate health effects
45.3 Approaches for risk-benefit assessment
45.3.1 Tiered approach
45.3.1.1 Separate risk and benefit assessment
45.3.1.2 Qualitative integration of risk and benefit
45.3.1.3 Quantitative integration of risk and benefit
45.3.2 Quantitative risk-benefit assessment
45.4 Risks and benefits
45.4.1 Chemicals
45.4.2 Nutrients
45.4.3 Microorganisms
45.4.4 Guidance values
45.5 Intake and exposure assessment
45.5.1 Food versus food component
45.5.2 Substitution
45.5.3 Background exposure
45.6 Dose–response
45.6.1 Human data
45.6.2 Animal data
45.7 Risk-benefit characterization
45.7.1 Comparing risks and benefits
45.7.2 Metrics
45.7.2.1 Disability-adjusted life year and quality-adjusted life year
45.7.2.2 Willingness to pay and willingness to accept
45.7.2.3 Multicriteria analysis
45.8 Case studies
45.8.1 Fish
45.8.2 Nuts
45.9 Uncertainty
45.10 Ethics
45.11 Communication
45.12 Future directions: sustainability, economy, and consumer perception
References
46 Exposure-driven risk management strategies for chemicals in food
46.1 Food chemical safety as an important determinant of health
46.2 Risk management measures: reduction of human exposure to target foodborne chemicals
46.3 Managing chemicals in food beyond setting maximum levels
46.4 Performance indicators associated with reduction of exposure to chemicals in food
46.5 Foodborne environmental contaminants
46.5.1 Traditional persistent organic pollutants
46.5.2 Emerging persistent organic pollutants—examples of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and perfluorinated chemicals
46.5.3 Heavy metals such as mercury (and methylmercury)
46.6 Natural toxicants
46.7 Chemicals induced by food processing
46.8 Conclusion
References
47 Role of human epidemiology in risk assessment and management
Chapter points
47.1 Introduction
47.2 External validity – nice to have or needed?
47.3 Hazard identification – rules for evidence grading versus expert judgment
47.4 Strengths and limitations of human interventions
47.5 Strengths and limitations of observational studies
47.5.1 Is it sufficient to rely on “gold standard” methods in evidence assessment?
47.5.2 Restricting the evidence to “low risk of bias” studies can create bias
47.5.3 Looking beyond the risk of bias
47.5.4 Use and integration of different study designs
47.6 Research gaps and future direction
Endnotes
References
48 Risk-based approaches in food allergy
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Risk analysis of ingredients and residues from allergenic foods
48.2.1 Intentional use of allergenic ingredients
48.2.1.1 Risk-based criteria for the selection of allergenic foods for regulation
48.2.2 Unintended allergen presence
48.2.2.1 Probabilistic quantitative risk assessment of food allergens
48.2.2.1.1 The history of probabilistic quantitative risk assessment of food allergens
48.2.2.1.2 Development and validation of eliciting dose-distribution datasets
48.2.2.1.3 Development and validation of food intake-distribution datasets
48.2.2.1.4 Application of probabilistic quantitative risk assessment of food allergens
48.2.2.2 Deterministic risk assessment of food allergens
48.2.2.3 Quantitative guidance for precautionary allergen labeling
48.2.3 The way forward
48.3 Allergenicity of proteins in novel food supply
48.3.1 History and current approaches for assessing allergenicity of new food protein products
48.3.1.1 History of use of the new protein(s) and/or source
48.3.1.2 Amino acid sequence homology with known allergens
48.3.1.3 Binding of the new protein(s) to IgE from allergic individuals
48.3.1.4 Resistance to digestive breakdown
48.3.1.5 Assessment of de novo sensitizing and allergenic potency
48.3.1.6 Animal models
48.3.2 The future of allergenicity assessment of new food protein products
References
49 Risk assessment of mixtures in the food chain
49.1 Introduction
49.2 Types of combined actions
49.3 When to assess the risk of combined exposures from chemicals in food
49.4 Which substances should be evaluated in a cumulative risk assessment? Common mechanism groups and cumulative assessmen...
49.5 Methods for cumulative risk assessment
49.5.1 Component-based approach
49.5.1.1 Relative potency factor/toxic equivalency factor
49.5.1.2 Hazard index
49.5.1.3 Reference point index
49.5.1.4 The combined margin of exposure
49.5.1.5 Cumulative risk index
49.5.2 Whole mixture approach
49.6 Assessment of exposure
49.7 Cumulative risk assessment conducted so far in United States and EU
49.7.1 Inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase (European Food Safety Authority and Environmental Protection Agency)
49.7.2 Triazines (Environmental Protection Agency)
49.7.3 Pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids (Environmental Protection Agency)
49.7.4 Chloroacetanilide pesticides (Environmental Protection Agency)
49.7.5 Compounds affecting the thyroid
49.7.6 Other effects on the nervous system (European Food Safety Authority)
49.8 Future directions
49.8.1 Methodological improvements
49.8.2 International harmonization
References
Section IX Current and emerging advances in food safety evaluation: pathogenic microorganisms including prions
50 Prions: detection of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and links to variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
50.1 Discovery of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle
50.2 Discovery of variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and link to BSE
50.3 Studies to determine infectivity in bovine tissues from BSE-affected cattle
50.4 Transmission studies in other species to assess susceptibility and likelihood of occurrence in other species
50.5 Risk assessments and controls
50.5.1 Controlling the disease in cattle (1988–2001)
50.5.2 Monitoring the epidemic and deregulation in the face of decline (2001 to present)
50.6 Future predictions
50.7 Research gaps
Acknowledgments
References
51 Role of real-time DNA analyses, biomarkers, resistance measurement, and ecosystem management in Campylobacter risk analysis
51.1 Introduction
51.2 Campylobacter spp.
51.3 Methods for Campylobacter detection
51.3.1 Official methods for Campylobacter detection
51.3.2 Polymerase chain reaction detection of Campylobacter
51.3.3 Real-time polymerase chain reaction detection of Campylobacter
51.3.4 Droplet digital polymerase chain reaction detection of Campylobacter
51.3.5 Loop-mediated isothermal amplification detection of Campylobacter
51.3.6 DNA dot blot detection of Campylobacter
51.3.7 Immunochromatographic assay for Campylobacter
51.3.8 Electrochemical biosensors for Campylobacter detection
51.3.9 Optical biosensors for Campylobacter detection
51.3.10 Colorimetric assays for Campylobacter detection
51.3.11 Piezoelectric biosensors for Campylobacter detection
51.3.12 Campylobacter detection by next-generation sequencing
51.4 Toward biomarkers identification to predict Campylobacter behavior
51.5 Lipooligosaccharide of Campylobacter strains as a biomarker of its pathogenicity
51.6 Risk analysis and detection methods
References
52 Identification and assessment of exposure to emerging foodborne pathogens using foodborne human viruses as an example
52.1 Introduction to emerging foodborne diseases
52.2 Knowledge needed to control an emerging foodborne concern
52.2.1 Role of risk assessment
52.3 Emergence of foodborne viruses
52.3.1 Estimating exposure to foodborne viruses
52.3.1.1 Quantifying virus levels in foods
52.3.1.2 Estimating the levels of infectious viruses ingested by consumers
52.4 Concluding remarks
References
53 Transfer of viruses implicated in human disease through food
53.1 Introduction
53.2 Foodborne viruses
53.3 Norovirus
53.4 Hepatitis A virus
53.5 Hepatitis E virus
53.6 Rotaviruses
53.7 Adenoviruses
53.8 Astroviruses
53.9 Sapovirus
53.10 Aichivirus
53.11 Other viruses that may infect food
53.12 Management of foodborne virus infections
53.13 Conclusions
References
Further reading
54 Role of gut microbiota in food safety
Chapter points
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Role of gut microbiome in mediating effect of food components on host health
54.2.1 Metabolism of dietary components into toxic substances
54.2.2 Healthy gut microbiome as a host defense mechanism against food toxins and foodborne illnesses
54.2.2.1 Detoxification of toxic compounds
54.2.2.2 Direct mechanisms of colonization resistance against foodborne pathogens
54.2.2.3 Indirect mechanisms of colonization resistance
54.3 Dietary risk factor for dysbiosis and strategy for healthy gut microbiome and food safety
54.3.1 Dietary components as risk factor for dysbiosis
54.3.1.1 Dietary imbalance
54.3.1.2 Maillard reaction products
54.3.1.3 Food additives
54.3.1.4 Food toxins and pathogens
54.3.2 Probiotics as a strategy to maintain healthy gut microbiome and improve food safety practices
54.4 Technical aspects to evaluate the role of gut microbiota in food safety studies
54.4.1 Experimental models to assess gut microbiota influence and changes
54.4.2 Tools for evaluation of gut microbiome
54.5 Research gap and future perspectives
Acknowledgment
References
55 Bacterial cell-to-cell communication and its relevance to food safety
55.1 Introduction
55.2 Cell-to-cell communication mechanisms in bacteria
55.3 Quorum sensing in foodborne pathogenic bacteria
55.4 Detection of quorum sensing signals in foods
55.5 Quorum quenching in food safety
55.6 Final considerations and perspectives
References
56 Significance of identifying microbial DNA in foods and raw materials without concomitant detection of respective viable ...
56.1 Introduction
56.2 The molecular biology area
56.3 Impact of processing technologies on the stability of nucleic acids
56.4 The viable but not culturable state and its significance for the food industry
56.5 DNA versus RNA detection and the interpretation of the results
56.6 Modern metagenomic approaches: can they help in the detection of foodborne pathogens in processed foods?
56.7 Conclusions
References
57 Whole-genome sequencing for food safety
Chapter points
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Main text
57.2.1 Advances in genome sequencing technologies and analytical tools
57.2.1.1 Next-generation sequencing technologies
57.2.2 Reads, assemblies, and contigs
57.2.3 From pangenome to core genome and multilocus sequence typing
57.2.4 Analysis of whole-genome sequencing data for food safety – in silico typing, alleles, single nucleotide polymorphism...
57.2.4.1 In silico species determination and low-resolution genotyping
57.2.4.2 In silico phenotype prediction – antimicrobial resistance, virulence, and serotype
57.2.4.3 Methods to determine relatedness and the ‘genetic unit’ of interest
57.2.5 Data sharing – underlining the need for quality control, standardization, harmonization, and accreditation
57.2.6 Visualization and web-based interactive tools
57.2.7 Whole-genome sequencing in low-resource countries
57.2.8 Examples of the application of whole-genome sequencing for food safety and the control of foodborne pathogens
57.2.8.1 The global spread of foodborne pathogens
57.2.8.2 The evolution and persistence of pathogens in food processing and along the production chain
57.2.8.3 Source attribution
57.2.8.4 Outbreak investigation
57.2.8.5 Safety evaluation of probiotic strains
57.2.8.6 Determining the genetic basis of antimicrobial resistance
57.2.8.7 Understanding transmission in food supply chains
57.2.8.7.1 Transmission from primary production to consumption
57.2.8.7.2 Transmission from one food processing company to another
57.2.8.7.3 Between farm transmission
57.2.9 Research gaps and future directions
Endnotes
References
58 Drug-resistant bacteria from “farm to fork”: impact of antibiotic use in animal production
58.1 Introduction
58.2 Development and transfer of antibiotic resistance
58.2.1 Conjugation
58.2.2 Transduction
58.2.3 Transformation
58.3 Epidemiology of antibiotic resistance
58.4 Existing antibiotic resistant microorganisms
58.5 Use of antibiotics in animal farming
58.6 Antibiotic resistance in food animals
58.7 Consequences of reducing the use of antibiotics in food animal farming
58.8 Consequences of antibiotic resistance in food animals on human health
58.9 Curbing the spread of antibiotic resistance in food agriculture
58.10 Detection of antibiotic resistant microorganisms
58.10.1 Phenotypic methods for determining antibiotic resistance
58.10.1.1 Dilution
58.10.1.2 Disk diffusion
58.10.1.3 E-test
58.10.2 Genotypic methods for determining antibiotic resistance
58.10.2.1 Polymerase chain reaction
58.10.2.2 DNA hybridization
58.10.2.3 DNA sequencing
58.11 Research gaps and future directions
References
59 Quick detection and confirmation of microbes in food and water
59.1 Introduction
59.2 Methods for microbial testing in food and water
59.2.1 Culture-based rapid approaches: an overview
59.2.1.1 Modifications to the standard colony count method
59.2.1.1.1 Automated spiral plate count method
59.2.1.1.2 Colorimetric detection of microorganisms on agar plates
59.2.1.1.3 Chromogenic dry film plating methods
59.2.1.2 Modifications to the most probable number method
59.2.1.2.1 Miniaturized most probable number method
59.2.1.2.2 Single-step most probable number methods
59.2.2 Nonculture-based rapid approaches
59.2.2.1 Direct epifluorescent filter technique
59.2.2.2 Biosensors
59.2.2.3 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
59.2.2.4 Solid-phase cytometry
59.2.2.5 ATP-bioluminescent detection
59.2.2.6 Immunoassays
59.2.2.6.1 Radioimmunoassay
59.2.2.6.2 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
59.2.2.6.3 Lateral flow immunoassay
59.2.2.6.4 Electrochemical immunoassay
59.2.2.6.5 Latex agglutination and reverse passive agglutination assay
59.2.2.6.6 Time-resolved fluorescence immunoassay
59.2.2.6.7 Chemiluminescent immunoassay
59.2.2.7 Other immunoassay-based methods
59.2.2.7.1 Protein/antibody microarrays
59.2.2.7.2 Mass spectrometric immunodetection
59.2.2.7.3 Microfluidic immunoassay
59.2.3 Polymerase chain reaction–based methods
59.2.3.1 Real-time polymerase chain reaction
59.2.3.2 Droplet digital PCR
59.2.3.3 Heat pulse extension-polymerase chain reaction
59.2.4 Aptamers
59.2.5 Whole genome sequencing
59.2.6 Fluorescence in situ hybridization
59.2.7 Loop-mediated isothermal amplification
59.2.8 Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry
59.3 Future remarks
Acknowledgments
Contributions
Conflicts of interest
References
Section X Safety assessment of genetically modified organisms and other biological alterations
60 New genetic modification techniques: challenges and prospects
60.1 Introduction
60.2 Genome editing
60.2.1 Engineered nucleases and oligonucleotides
60.2.1.1 Zinc finger nucleases
60.2.1.2 Transcription activator-like effector nucleases
60.2.1.3 Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-Cas editing
60.2.1.4 Meganucleases
60.2.1.5 Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis
60.2.2 Comparative advantages and disadvantages of site-directed nucleases
60.2.3 Mechanisms and outcomes of genome editing
60.2.4 Targeted knockout mutations in plants
60.2.5 Targeted knock-in mutations in plants
60.2.6 Delivery systems
60.2.6.1 Stable integration of site-directed nucleases
60.2.6.2 Transient gene expression of nuclease editors
60.2.6.3 Transgene-free genome editing
60.3 Cis-genesis and intra-genesis
60.4 Transgrafting
60.5 RNA-directed DNA Methylation (RdDM)
60.6 Reverse breeding
60.7 Agroinfiltration
60.8 Synthetic biology
60.9 Safety assessment considerations
60.9.1 Genome editing applications
60.9.2 Other new genetic modification applications
60.9.2.1 Cis-genesis and intra-genesis
60.9.2.2 Transgrafting
60.9.2.3 RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM)
60.9.2.4 Reverse breeding
60.9.2.5 Agroinfiltration
60.9.3 The regulatory context
60.10 Detection and identification
60.10.1 DNA amplification
60.10.2 DNA sequencing
60.10.3 Other analysis methods
60.10.4 Identification of the process
60.11 Conclusion and prospects
Glossary
References
61 Safety assessment of food and feed derived from genetically modified plants
Chapter points
61.1 Introduction
61.1.1 Risk assessment strategy
61.1.2 Scope of market authorization
61.1.3 Background information on the recipient plant
61.2 Molecular characterization
61.2.1 Genetic modification
61.2.2 Molecular description of the new trait
61.2.3 Potential for horizontal gene transfer
61.2.4 Characterization of newly expressed proteins
61.2.5 Evaluation of RNA interference
61.2.6 Breeding stacks and subcombinations
61.3 Comparative analysis
61.3.1 Choice of the conventional counterpart and other nongenetically modified comparators
61.3.2 Controlled field trial for the comparative analysis
61.3.3 Comparative analysis of phenotypic characteristics and agronomic performance
61.3.4 Comparative analysis of composition
61.3.5 Effect of food or feed processing
61.3.6 What about unexpected unintended effects?
61.4 Assessment of newly expressed proteins
61.4.1 Weight-of-evidence evaluation of NEP safety
61.4.2 Material for newly expressed protein safety assessment
61.5 Safety of new constituents other than newly expressed proteins
61.5.1 Newly expressed RNA
61.5.2 The disputed 90-day feeding test
61.6 Allergenicity assessment
61.6.1 Weight-of-evidence allergenicity evaluation of newly expressed proteins
61.6.2 Allergenicity of the whole genetically modified plant
61.6.3 Adjuvanticity
61.6.4 Gluten-sensitive enteropathy
61.7 Nutritional assessment
61.8 Exposure assessment and risk characterization
61.8.1 Anticipated extent of use
61.8.2 Risk characterization
61.9 Risk management
61.9.1 Postmarket monitoring
61.9.2 Pesticide residues
61.9.3 Low-level presence
61.10 Conclusion and perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Section XI Food safety: risk perception and communicating with the public
62 Consumer attitudes about the use of new technologies in agrifood industries
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Genetically modified organisms
62.3 Cultured meat products
62.4 Alternative protein sources
62.5 Cellular agriculture
62.6 Food additives
62.6.1 Background
62.6.2 Consumer perceptions
62.7 Food colors
62.8 Carrageenan
62.9 The sociology of consumer activism
62.10 Conclusion
References
63 Microbiological risks versus putative chemical risks based on hazard rather than exposure: can it be rationalized for pu...
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Terminology, definitions, and challenges of communication
63.3 Microbial hazards in foods
63.4 Chemical hazards in foods
63.5 The case for hazard-based approaches
63.5.1 Disadvantages
63.6 The case for risk assessment
63.6.1 Disadvantages
63.7 Balancing and reconciling different risks
63.7.1 Whole food example: meat and cancer risk
63.7.2 Chlorate, a by-product of disinfection: balancing microbial and chemical risks
63.7.3 Thermal processing and cooking contaminant: acrylamide
63.8 Hazard and risk ranking
63.9 Hazard warning labels on foods
63.9.1 Allergens
63.9.2 Proposition 65
63.9.3 Artificial food colors
63.9.4 Other hazard labels
63.10 Learning from the COVID-19 pandemic
63.11 Future challenges and opportunities
63.12 Conclusions and recommendations
Endnotes
References
64 Communicating about risk in relation to food with the public and countering media alarmism
64.1 Introduction—“Everything’s a risky hazard”
64.2 Risk communication
64.3 Hazard; real and perceived risk; mitigation; outrage
64.4 Storyteller importance
64.5 Approach and principles for food safety risk communication
64.5.1 HOT risk communications approach
64.5.1.1 Honest
64.5.1.2 Open
64.5.1.3 Transparent
64.5.2 4Rs risk communications principles
64.5.2.1 Rapid
64.5.2.2 Reliable
64.5.2.3 Relevant
64.5.2.4 Repeated
64.6 COVID-19 food safety communications
64.7 Ban the avocado!
References
65 Consumer attitudes toward novel agrifood technologies: a critical review on genetic modification and synthetic biology
65.1 Introduction
65.2 Public attitudes towards genetic modification and synthetic biology
65.3 Public perceptions of benefits and risks
65.3.1 Prior attitudes and application types
65.3.2 Influence of affect heuristic
65.3.3 Effects of information and knowledge
65.3.4 Social trust in institutions and information sources
65.3.5 Individual attributes and social contexts
65.4 Ethical concerns
65.5 Regulations of genetic modification and synthetic biology
65.6 Implications for future research and strategy-making
Endnotes
References
Section XII New and emerging foods and technologies
66 Safety, nutrition and sustainability of plant-based meat alternatives
66.1 Introduction
66.2 Formulation
66.3 Processing
66.4 Microbial Safety and Testing
66.5 Allergens
66.6 Allergenicity risk assessment of alternative proteins
66.7 Contaminants, chemicals, and GMOs
66.8 Antinutrients and off-flavors
66.9 Nutritional comparisons
66.10 Health benefits
66.11 Sustainability
66.12 Research gaps and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
67 The role of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence in food risk assessment and prediction
67.1 Introduction
67.2 Available systems and tools for risk assessment
67.3 Applying Big Data and Artificial Intelligence for food risk assessment and prediction
67.3.1 Workflow for Big Data processing
67.3.2 Risk assessment
67.3.3 Identifying emerging risks
67.3.4 Risk prediction
67.3.5 Setting up a live and automated risk assessment and prediction
67.4 Case study: risk assessment and prediction for fruits and vegetables
67.5 Research gaps and future perspectives
Acknowledgment
References
68 Blockchain: an enabler for safe food in global supply networks
68.1 Introduction
68.1.1 Research question: what are the benefits and limitations of blockchain in global food supply chains?
68.2 Methodology
68.2.1 Blockchain and food
68.3 Descriptive results
68.3.1 Year-wise distribution of publications
68.3.2 Journal-wise distribution of publications
68.3.3 Content analysis
68.4 Findings
68.4.1 Traceability
68.4.2 Trust and transparency
68.4.3 Data management and security
68.4.4 Food trade
68.4.5 Barriers to adoption
68.5 Blockchain as an enabler of food supply chains
68.5.1 Technical overview
68.5.2 Types of blockchain platforms
68.5.3 Blockchain alternatives and competitors
68.6 Case studies
68.6.1 Case study 1: connecting food
68.6.2 Case study 2: Origin Chain Networks: universal farm compliance
68.7 Conclusion
Endnotes
References
Further reading
Section XIII Hazard versus risk-based approaches to food safety regulations
69 Pros and cons of hazard- versus risk-based approaches to food safety regulation
69.1 Introduction
69.2 The concept of hazard in the 21st century
69.2.1 General principles
69.2.2 Hazard-based approaches in food safety regulation
69.3 Risk-based approaches in safety assessment
69.3.1 General principle
69.3.2 The data-rich versus the data-poor
69.3.3 Case example review: threshold of toxicological concern
69.3.4 Weight of evidence based on science
69.3.5 Clarity and consistency
69.3.6 Compounds with and without thresholds
69.4 Examples of hazard-based food safety regulation
69.4.1 Genotoxicity
69.4.2 Endocrine disruption
69.5 Disadvantages and limitations of hazard-based safety regulation
69.5.1 Relevance of kinetics
69.6 Implications for risk management
69.6.1 Risk perception and risk acceptance
69.6.2 Uncertainties put into context
69.7 Communication along the food chain
69.7.1 Fipronil eggs
69.7.2 Residues on food items
69.7.3 Public perception
69.7.4 Impact of globalization
69.8 Future perspectives
References
Section XIV Impact of food safety on global trade
70 Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI): underpinning the safety of the global food chain, facilitating regulatory complian...
70.1 Introduction
70.1.1 Global Food Safety Initiative history: “once recognized, certified everywhere”
70.1.2 Global Food Safety Initiative in the past decade: “safe food for consumers everywhere”
70.1.3 Global Food Safety Initiative today: “safe food for all”: towards a more trusted ecosystem for safer food systems fo...
70.1.3.1 Phase I – Race to the top: building more trust in the existing ecosystem
70.1.3.2 Phase 2 – Race to the top: enhancing a new ecosystem to serve capacities for safe food for all
70.1.3.2.1 Global Food Safety Initiative Global Markets Program
70.2 Global Food Safety Initiative’s new capability building approach: enhancing more inclusive trade via food safety capac...
70.2.1 A new paradigm for food systems: the shift of focus towards lower- and middle-income countries and the opportunities...
70.2.2 The revolution of digital technologies and big data in the food system
70.2.3 The challenge of climate change on food systems and food safety
70.2.4 Global Food Safety Initiative future capability building approach: a unique opportunity to cooperate
70.3 Public-private partnership: a cornerstone of Global Food Safety Initiative strategy to seek recognition from regulator...
70.3.1 Global Food Safety Initiative’s role and objective in the public-private partnership context is to facilitate trade:...
70.3.2 Debunking the myths around third party certification to strengthen efforts on food safety
70.3.3 A complementary role for Global Food Safety Initiative in the global food safety systems governance
70.3.4 Accredited third-party certification serves food business operators as a mechanism and framework with tools to impro...
70.3.5 Future direction
70.3.5.1 Global Food Safety Initiative government to business: a public-private forum to collaborate, co-create, and scale-...
Endnotes
References
Section XV Climate change, population demographics, urbanization, and economic growth: impact on food safety
71 Food and nutrition security: challenges for farming, procurement, and consumption
71.1 Introduction
71.2 Food and nutrition security
71.2.1 Food availability, food access, food utilization, and stability
71.2.2 Framing food and nutrition security
71.3 Farming
71.3.1 Climate change and natural resources
71.3.2 Land use
71.3.3 Toward sustainable intensification
71.4 Procurement
71.4.1 Supermarkets
71.4.2 Alternative food networks
71.5 Consumption
71.5.1 Environmental footprint
71.5.2 Healthy diets
71.5.3 Fair food
71.6 Research to support a sustainable food system and FNS
71.6.1 The need for science-based quantitative data
71.6.2 Focus of the research on the biggest challenges and knowledge gaps
71.7 Enabling transition toward sustainable food systems
71.7.1 Prerequisites for a sustainable food system
71.7.2 Critical success factors
Acknowledgment
References
72 Climate change: food safety challenges in the near future
Chapter points
72.1 Introduction
72.2 Environmental change
72.2.1 Human pressure on ecosystem change
72.2.2 Biodiversity loss
72.3 Climate change and food safety
72.3.1 Direct effect of climate change on the foodborne pathogens and spoilage organisms
72.3.2 Secondary effect of climate change on food safety via changes in ecosystem
72.3.3 Indirect or tertiary effects of climate change on food safety through human and social factors
72.3.3.1 Human physiological factors
72.3.3.2 Factors in food supply chain
72.3.3.3 Human behavior
72.3.3.4 Societal factors
72.4 Research gaps and future directions
72.4.1 Mitigation
72.4.2 Adaptation
72.4.3 Cross-sectorial collaboration for food system and food safety
72.4.4 Evidence- and science-based approaches
72.4.5 Risk-based strategies
72.4.6 Target-oriented approaches
72.4.7 Collaborative activities within academia and with nonacademia—interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary researches
References
Index
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