Poisonous Plants and Phytochemicals in Drug Discovery

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Contributors
List of Figures
Listof Tables
Preface
Editors
Chapter 1 Historical Use of Toxic Plants
1.1 Introduction to Toxic Plants
1.2 Poisonous Plants as Sources of Traditional and Modern Medicines
1.3 Toxic Plants and Justice
1.3.1 Toxic Plants in Capital Punishment
1.3.2 Trial by Ordeal
1.4 Toxic Plants in Poisoned Weapons
1.4.1 Arrow Poisons
1.5 Plant Fishing Poisons/Piscicides/Ichthyotoxins
1.6 Poisonous Plants as Food
1.7 Poisonous Plants as Biopesticides
1.8 Toxic Psychoactive Plants for Recreational and Religious Purposes
1.9 Poisonous Plants in Warfare and Bioterrorism
1.10 Poisonous Plants as Carcinogens and Teratogens
1.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2 Classification of Phytotoxins and their Mechanisms of Action
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Endophytic Phytotoxins
2.1.2 Secondary Metabolites
2.2 Possible Categorization
2.2.1 Biological Characteristics
2.2.2 Chemical Characteristics
2.3 Currently Available Classification Tools
2.4 Role of Phytotoxin Classification
2.4.1 Drug Discovery
2.4.2 Environmental Monitoring
2.4.3 Phytotoxins, Aquatic Life, and Water Quality
2.4.4 Air Contamination
2.4.5 Food Contamination
2.4.6 Security and Safety Services
2.4.7 Agricultural
2.5 Brief Mechanisms of Action
2.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3 Poisonous Plants as Sources of Anticancer and Other Drugs
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Poisonous Plants in the Treatment of Cancer and Other Diseases
3.3 Poisonous Plant-Based Anticancer Drugs that are on the Market
3.4 Poisonous Plant-Based Drugs Against Other Diseases that are on the Market
3.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 Drugs in Clinical Practice from Toxic Plants and Phytochemicals
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Drugs in Clinical Practice from Toxic Plants
4.2.1 Curare
4.2.2 Drugs Acting on the Central Nervous System
4.2.2.1 Morphine
4.2.2.2 Cocaine
4.2.2.3 Ergot Alkaloids
4.2.3 Atropine, Scopolamine, and Hyoscyamine
4.2.4 Physostigmine and Other Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors
4.2.5 Antitumor Agents
4.2.5.1 Podophyllotoxin and Etoposide
4.2.5.2 Taxanes
4.2.5.3 Vincristine and Vinblastine
4.2.6 Other Drugs
4.2.6.1 Cardiac Glycosides
4.2.6.2 Colchicine
4.2.6.3 Coumarins
4.2.6.4 Nicotine and the Neonicotinoids
References
Chapter 5 Toxicology and Health Benefits of Plant Alkaloids
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Pharmacological Properties of Alkaloids
5.3 Toxicological Properties of Alkaloids
5.4 Acute and Chronic Toxicities
5.4.1 Genotoxicity and Tumorigenicity
5.4.2 Lung Toxicity, Neurotoxicity, and Teratogenicity
5.5 Factors that Influence the Toxicological Profile of Alkaloids
5.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Chemical and Pharmacological Mechanisms of Plant-Derived Neurotoxins
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nerve Agents
6.3 Chemical Mechanisms of Neurotoxicity Induced by Organophosphate Nerve Agents
6.4 Mustards
6.4.1 Effect of HD on Skin
6.4.2 Effect of HD on Other Organs
6.4.3 The Activation of HD
6.4.4 Mechanism of Action
6.5 Plant Natural Neurotoxins
6.6 Plant Glycosides
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Phytosedatives for Drug Discovery
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Treatment of Neuropsychological Disorders: The Current Scenario
7.3 Phytosedatives: Desirable Alternatives to Synthesized Drugs
7.4 Different Classes of Phytosedatives
7.4.1 Flavonoids
7.4.2 Alkaloids
7.4.3 Essential Oils
7.4.4 Other Classes of Phytosedatives
7.5 Plants with Reported Sedative Actions
7.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8 Mushroom Species and Classification: Bioactives in Poisonous and Edible Mushrooms
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Classification of Mushrooms
8.2.1 Edible Mushrooms
8.2.2 Non-Edible Mushrooms
8.3 Bioactive Agents in Mushroom Species
8.4 Bioactive Agents in Non-Edible Mushroom Species
8.4.1 Polysaccharides
8.4.2 Glucans
8.4.3 Polysaccharide–Protein Complexes
8.4.4 Terpenes
8.4.5 Phenolic Compounds
8.4.6 Peptides and Proteins
8.5 Other Bioactive Compounds of Mushroom Species
8.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9 Toxicity Protocols for Natural Products in the Drug Development Process
9.1 Introduction
9.2 In Vitro Toxicity Testing for Natural Products
9.2.1 Cell Culture Method for Toxicity Testing
9.2.2 Cell Culture for Acute Toxicology Testing
9.3 Methods Used for In Vitro Toxicity Studies
9.3.1 MTT Assay
9.3.2 Neutral Red Uptake Assay
9.3.3 Lactate Dehydrogenase Assay
9.4 In Vitro Models for Liver Toxicity
9.5 In Vitro Models for Nephrotoxicity Studies
9.6 In Vitro Model for Dermal Toxicity Testing
9.7 Mutagenicity Testing In Vitro
9.7.1 Bacterial Cell System
9.8 Reproductive and Teratogenicity Studies In Vitro
9.9 In Vivo Toxicity Testing of Natural Products
9.9.1 Acute Toxicity Testing
9.9.2 Subchronic Toxicity Testing
9.9.3 Chronic Toxicity Testing
9.9.4 Dermal and Ocular Toxicity
9.9.5 Toxicity Testing for Fertility and Reproduction
9.9.6 Combined Repeated Dose Toxicity Study with Reproduction/Developmental Testing
9.9.7 In Vivo Carcinogenicity Testing
9.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Quality Control for the Safety of Natural Products
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Quality Assurance of Herbal Products
10.3 Methods of Quality Control for Herbal Products
10.3.1 DNA-Based Technologies
10.3.2 Good Practice Guidelines
10.3.3 Chemoprofiling
10.3.4 Toxicology
10.3.5 Monographs and Pharmacopeias
10.3.6 Preclinical Evidence of Safety and Efficacy
10.3.7 Systems Biology
10.3.8 Animal Experimentation
10.3.9 Clinical Evidence of Safety and Efficacy
10.4 WHO Guidelines for Quality Standardization of Herbal Formulations
10.4.1 Quality Control of Crude Material
10.4.2 Identity of Plant Material
10.4.3 Safety Assessment and Documentation
10.5 Concept of Validation in Herbal Products
10.6 Challenges Related to Quality Control and Monitoring the Safety of Herbal Products
References
Chapter 11 Secondary Metabolites and Toxins of Microbial Origin for the Treatment of Diseases
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Antimicrobial Agents from Microbial Sources
11.3 Antifungal Agents from Microbial Sources
11.4 Anticancer Agents from Microbial Sources
11.5 Hypocholesterolemic Agents from Microbial Sources
11.6 Immunosuppressants from Microbial Sources
11.7 Enzyme Inhibitors from Microbial Sources
11.8 Antiparasitic Agents from Microbial Sources
11.9 Recent Advances in Drug Discovery from Microbial Sources
References
Chapter 12 Development of Phyto-Antidotes Against Adverse Chemical Agents
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Heavy Metals and their Effects on the Body
12.3 Detoxification Properties of Biologically Active Substances of Plant-Based Foods
12.3.1 Pectins
12.3.2 Phytin
12.3.3 Betalains
12.3.4 Phytochelatins
12.3.5 Ellagic Acid
12.3.6 Miscellaneous
12.4 Current State of Clinical Application of Phyto-Antidotes
12.5 Further Prospects in the Search for Promising Phyto-Antidotes
12.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13 Nanoformulated Herbal Drug Delivery as Efficient Antidotes Against Systemic Poisons
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Herbal Phytochemicals as Antidotes for Systemic Poisons
13.2.1 Herbal Phytochemicals as Antidotes for Heavy Metal Poisoning
13.2.2 Herbal Phytochemicals as Antidotes for Snake Venom Poisoning
13.3 Nanoformulated Herbal Phytochemicals as Antidotes
13.3.1 Inorganic Nanoparticles
13.3.2 Micelles and Liposomes
13.3.3 Polymeric Nanoparticles
13.4 Mechanism of Nanoformulated Herbal Phytochemicals against Systemic Poisoning
13.5 Future Perspectives
13.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 Phytochemical-Based Nanoparticles as Foes and Friends
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Phytochemicals Used in the Synthesis of Nanoparticles
14.3 Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Nanoparticles
14.4 Wound-Healing Effects of Nanoparticles
14.5 Antiparasitic, Antifungal, and Antibacterial Activities of Nanoparticles
14.6 Neuroprotective Effects of Nanoparticles
14.7 Cardioprotective Effects of Nanoparticles
14.8 Anticancer Effects of Nanoparticles
14.9 Advantages of Nanoparticles
14.10 Disadvantages of Nanoparticles
14.11 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
Chapter 15 Application of Metabolomics in Emergency Phytochemical Poisoning and Remediation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Traditional Use of Medicinal Plants
15.3 Natural Products: Safety and Toxicity
15.3.1 Safety
15.3.2 Toxicity and Natural Killers
15.4 Biological Systems in Phytochemical Poisoning and Remediation
15.5 Metabolomics: An Important Functional Genomics Tool
15.5.1 Essential Components of a Metabolomics Workflow
15.5.2 Sample Preparation
15.5.3 Analytical Methods in Metabolomics
15.5.4 Metabolite Identification
15.5.5 Data Processing and Analysis
15.5.6 Pathway Analysis
15.6 Assessment of Toxicity of Herbal Medicines Using Metabolomics
15.7 Application of Metabolomics in Emergency Phytochemical Poisoning and Remediation
15.7.1 Hepatotoxicity of Triptolide
15.7.2 Hepatotoxicity of Noscapine
15.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16 Methods for the Detection and Identification of Phytotoxins
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Phytotoxins
16.2.1 Importance of Toxins
16.3 Methods Generally Used for Phytotoxin Detection
16.3.1 Biological Method Review of Detecting Phytotoxins
16.3.2 Chemical and Microbiological Reagents
16.4 Protease Inhibition Detection Protocol
16.4.1 Exposure of the Protease Detection Plate to a Protease Inhibitor or Bacterial Growth (Step 1)
16.4.2 Exposure to a Protease-Containing Solution (Step 2)
16.4.3 Detecting Zones of Protease Inhibition (Step 3)
16.5 Isolation of Phytotoxins from Microorganisms
16.5.1 Detection of Phytotoxins Isolated from Fungi
16.5.2 Purification of the Extracted Phytotoxins
16.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17 Categorization, Management, and Regulation of Potentially Weaponizable Toxic Plants
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Management of Weaponized Natural Food Agents
17.3 Techniques Used for Extraction, Segregation, and Decontamination of Phytochemicals
17.3.1 Solvent-Based Extraction of Phenolic Compounds
17.3.2 Microwave-Associated Extraction
17.3.3 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction
17.4 Techniques for Identification of Bioactive Compounds
17.4.1 Ultraviolet–Visible Spectroscopy
17.4.2 Infrared Spectroscopy
17.4.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
17.4.4 Mass Spectrometry
17.5 Types of Natural Phytotoxins
17.5.1 Aquatic Biotoxins
17.5.2 Glycosides
17.5.3 Other Common Phytotoxins
17.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18 In Silico Modeling as a Tool to Predict and Characterize Plant Toxicity
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Components of In Silico Toxicity Methods
18.2.1 Databases
18.2.2 Molecular Descriptors
18.2.3 Toxicity Models and Modeling Software
18.2.4 Simulation Packages
18.3 Modeling Methods
18.4 Structural Alerts/Rule Based
18.5 Statistical Structure-Based Activity Relationship Models
18.5.1 Read-Across
18.6 Conclusion
References
Index
EULA