Physical Chemistry for the JEE and Other Engineering Entrance Examinations

Cover
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1: Structure of Atom
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Atomic Theory
1.3 Sub-Atomic Particles
1.3.1 Discovery of Electron
1.3.2 Charge on the Electron
1.3.3 Discovery of Proton
1.3.4 Discovery of Neutron
1.4 Atomic Models
1.4.1 Thomson Model of Atom
1.4.2 Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom
1.5 Atomic Number
1.5.1 Isobars, Isotopes and Isotones
1.6 Developments Leading to the Bohr Model of Atom
1.6.1 Nature of Light and Electromagnetic Radiation
1.6.2 Quantum Theory of Radiation
1.6.3 Photoelectric Effect
1.6.4 Compton Effect
1.6.5 Dual Nature of Electromagnetic Radiations
1.6.6 Atomic Spectra
1.6.7 Types of Spectra
1.7 Bohr’s Model of the Atom
1.7.1 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
1.7.2 Origin of Spectral Lines and the Hydrogen Spectrum
1.7.3 Limitations of the Bohr’s Model
1. 8 Waves and Particles
1.8.1 Dual Nature of Matter
1.8.2 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
1.8.3 Significance of Uncertainty Principle
1.8.4 Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
1.8.5 Schrodinger Wave Equation
1.8.6 The Meaning of Wave Function
1.9 Quantum Numbers
1.10 Shapes of Orbitals
1.10.1 Boundary Surface Diagrams
1.10.2 Energies of Orbitals
1.11 Filling of Orbitals
1.11.1 Electronic Configuration of Atoms
1.11.2 Relative Stabilities of Electronic Configurations
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of Chemistry
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Submicroscopic Models
2.3 Mixture and Pure Substances
2.4 Physical Properties of Matter
2.4.1 The States of Matter
2.4.2 Chemical Change
2.4.3 The Elements
2.4.4 Compounds and Mixtures
2.4.5 Difference between Physical and Chemical Change
2.5. Properties of Matter and their Measurement
2.5.1 Physical Measurements
2.5.2. The International System of Units (SI Units)
2.5.3 S1 Base Units and S1 Prefixes
2.5.4 Derived Units
2.5.5 Dimensional Analysis
2.6 Significant Figures
2.6.1 Number of Significant Figures
2.6.2 Significant Figures in Calculations
2.6. 3 Exact Numbers
2.7 Laws of Chemical Combinations
2.7.1 Law of Conservation of Mass
2.7.2 Law of Definite Proportions
2.7.3 Law of Equivalents or Law of Reciprocal Proportions
2.7.4 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
2.7.5 Law of Multiple Proportions
2.7.6 Gay-Lussac's is Law of Volumes
2.7.7 Avogadro’s Hypothesis
2.8 Atomic Weights
2.8.1 The Atomic Weight Scale
2.9 Percentage Composition and Formula
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 3: The States of Matter
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Inter-Molecular Forces
3.2.1 Dipole-Dipole Interaction
3.2.2 Ion-Dipole Interactions
3.2.3 Ion-Induced Dipole Interaction and Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction
3.2.4 Instantaneous Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction
3.2.5 Hydrogen Bond
3.2.6 Intermolecular Forces vs Thermal Interactions
3.3 The Gaseous State
3.3.1 Mass (m)
3.3.2 Volume (V)
3.3.3 Pressure
3.3.4 Temperature (T)
3.4 The Gas Laws
3.4.1 Boyle’s Law
3.4.2 Charles – Gay Lussac’s Law
3.4.3 Gay Lussac’s Law
3.4.4 Avogadro’s Hypothesis
3.4.5 Ideal Gas Equation
3.4.6 Gas Density
3.4.7 Graham’s Law of Diffusion
3.4.8 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
3.5 The Kinetic Theory of Gases
3.5.1 Kinetic Gas Equation
3.5.2 Derivation of Kinetic Gas Equation
3.5.3 Deduction of Gas Laws
3.6 Distribution of Molecular Velocities
3.7 Collision Properties
3.7.1 Calculation of Mean Free Path
3.7.2 Mean Free Path
3.8 Real Gases: Deviation From Ideal Gas Behaviour
3.8.1 Van der Waals Equation
3.8.2 Applicability of Van der Waals Equation to Real Gases
3.8.3 Compressibility Factor
3.9 The Heat Capacities of Gases
3.9.1 Molar Heat at Constant Volume
3.9.2 Molar Heat at Constant Pressure
3.9.3 Joule-Thomson coefficient
3.10 Liquefaction
3.10.1 Law of Corresponding States
3.10.2 Limitations of Van der Waals Equation
3.10.3 Vapour Pressure
3.10.4 Vapour Pressure of Salt Hydrates
3.10.5 Surface Tension
3.10.6 Viscosity
3.10.7 Factors Affecting Viscocity of Liquids
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 4: Solid State
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
4.2 Classification of Crystalline Solids
4.2.1 Molecular Solids
4.2.2 Ionic Solids
4.2.3 Covalent or Network Solids
4.2.4 Metallic Solids
4.3 Allotropy and Polymorphism
4.3.1 Enantiotropy
4.3.2 Monotropy
4.3.3 Dynamic Allotropy
4.4 Isomorphism
4.5 The Vapour Pressure and Melting Points of Solids
4.6 Space Lattice and Unit Cell
4.6.1 Primitive and Unit Cell
4.6.2 The Seven Crystal Systems
4.6.3 Contribution of Lattice Points to the Unit Cell
4.7 Packing of Equal Spheres
4.7.1 Interstitial Sites or Interstitial Voids
4.7.2 Radios Ratio of Tetrahedral Void
4.7.3 Radius Ratio of Octahedral Void
4.7.4 Radius Ratio of Triangular Void
4.7.5 Radius Ratio of Cubic Void
4.7.6 Coordination Number
4.7.7 Locating Tetrahedral and Octahedral Voids in Cubic Close Packing
4.8 Efficiency of Packing
4.8.1 Relationship Between the Nearest Neighbour Distance (d) and Radius of Atom (r) and Edge of Unit Cell (a)
4.9 Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions
4.10 Metal Crystals
4.11 Radius Ratio and Structure of Ionic Compounds
4.11.1 Structure of Ionic Compoundsof AB Type
4.12 Crystallography
4.12.1 The Law of Constancy of Interfacial Angles
4.12.2 Elements of Symmetry
4.12.3 Law of Rational Indices
4.12.4 X-rays and Internal Structure of Crystal
4.12.5 Determination of Crystal Structure
4.12.6 Structure of Crystals
4.13 Imperfections in Solids
4.13.1 Point Defects
4.14 Properties of Solids
4.14.1 Electrical Properties
4.14.2 Electrical Conductivity in Metals
4.14.3 Electrical Conductivity in Semi Conductors
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 5: Solutions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Solutions
5.3 Methods For Expressing The Concentration of A Solution
5.4 Types of Binary Solutions
5.5 Solubility
5.5.1 The Solubility of Solids in Liquids
5.5.2 Cause of Solubility of Solids in Liquids
5.6 Solubility of Gases in Liquids Henry’s Law
5.6.1 Other Forms of Henry’s Law
5.6.2 Characteristics of Henry’s Law Constant KH
5.6.3 Limitations of Henry’s Law
5.6.4 Application of Henry’s Law
5.7 Solution of Liquids in Liquids
5.7.1 Cause of Miscibility and Immiscibility
5.7.2 Distillation of Binary Solutionsof Liquid in Liquid
5.7.3 Fractional Distillation
5.7.4 Fractional Distillation of Solutions Showing Large Positive Deviation from Raoult’s Law
5.7.5 Fractional Distillation of Solutions Showing Larger Negative Deviations from Raoult’s law
5.7.6 Azeotropic Mixtures or Constant Boiling Mixtures
5.8 Colligative Properties
5.8.1 Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids
5.8.2 Types of Colligative Properties
5.9 Lowering of Vapour Pressure
5.9.1 Raoult’s Law
5.9.2 Lowering of Vapour Pressure –A Colligative Property
5.9.3 Limitations of Raoult’s Law
5.9 4 Derivation of Raoult’s Law
5.9.5 Determination of Molecular Weight or Molecular Mass from Lowering of Vapour Pressure
5.9.6 Determination of the Lowering of Vapour Pressure
5.10 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
5.10.1 Demonstration of Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
5.10.2 Berkeley and Hartely’s Method
5.10.3 Van’t Hoff Theory of Dilute Solutions The Laws of Osmotic Pressure
5.10.4 Van’t Hoff – Avogadro’s Law for Solutions
5.10.5 Osmotic Pressure: A Colligative Property
5.10.6 Relation Between Osmotic Pressure and Vapour Pressure Lowering
5.10.7 Determination of Molecular Weight or Molecular Mass from Osmotic Pressure
5.10.8 Usefulness and Limitations of Van’t Hoff’s Theory of Dilute Solutions
5.10.9 Osmotic Pressure of Mixture of Two Solutions
5.10.10 Reverse Osmosis
5.10.11 Silicate Gardens
5.10.12 Biological Importance of Osmosis
5.11 Elevation in Boiling Point
5.11.1 Determination of Molecular Weight or Molecular Mass from Elevation in Boiling Point
5.11.2 Thermodynamic Derivation
5.11.3 Boiling Point Elevation – A Colligative Property
5.11.4 Relation Between Elevation of B.P.and Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
5.11.5 Determination of Boiling Point Elevation
5.12 Depression of Freezing Point
5.12.1 Determination of Molecular Weight or Molecular Mass of a Solute from Depression in F.Pt
5.12.2 Relation Between Depression in F.Pt and Lowering of Vapour Pressure
5.12.3 Relation Between Depression in F.Pt and Osmotic Pressure
5.12.4 Freezing Point Depression – A Coligative Property
5.12.5 Determination of Freezing Point Depression
5.12.6 Application of Depression of Freezing Point
5.13 Abnormal Molecular Weights
5.13.1 Dissociation
5.13.2 Association
5.13.3 Abnormal Molecular Weights
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 6: Thermodynamics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Thermodynamic Systems
6.2.1 Types of Systems
6.2.2 Thermodynamic Variables
6.2.3 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
6.2.4 State of a System
6.2.5 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems
6.2.6 State Functions
6.2.7 Methods of Studying Thermodynamics
6.2.8 Types of Process
6.2.9 Path
6.3 Heat and Work
6.4 Zeroth Law
6.5 Internal Energy
6.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics
6.6.1 Applications of First Law of Thermodynamics
6.6.2. Work Done in Isothermal and Reversible Expansion of an Ideal Gas
6.6.3 Work Done in an Isothermal Irreversible Expansion of an Ideal Gas
6.6.4 Adiabatic Expansion of Ideal Gas
6.6.5 Work Done in the Irreversible Expansion of an Ideal Gas in Adiabatic Process
6.6.6 Comparison Between Isothermal and Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas
6.7 Enthalpy
6.7.1 Enthalpy and Standard States
6.8 Second Law of Thermodynamics
6.8.1 The Decrease in Enthalpy is not a Criterion but a Contributor for Spontaneity
6.8.2 Entropy and Spontaneity
6.8.3 The Concept of Entropy
6.8.4 Changes Occurring in an Isolated System
6.8.5 Quantitative Aspects of Entropy
6.8.6 Entropy as a State Function
6.8.7 Entropy Change Spontaneity and Equilibrium: Second law of Thermodynamics
6.8.8 Entropy and Equilibrium State
6.8.9 Entropy Change in Reversible Process
6.8.10 Entropy Change in Irreversible Processes
6.8.11 Entropy Change for Ideal Gases
6.8.12 Entropy Change During Phase Transition
6.8.13 Standard Entropies
6.8.14 Entropy Changes of a Reaction
6.9 Gibbs Energy
6.9.1 Standard Gibbs Energies
6.9.2 The Gibbs Energy of Formation of an Element in its Standard State is Zero
6.9.3 Gibbs Energy Changes Under Non-Standard Conditions
6.9.4 Predicting Spontaneity of a Process
6.9.5 Qualitative Treatment of Gibbs Energy
6.9.6 Equilibrium and Gibbs Energy
6.9.7 Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constants
6.9.8 Coupled Reactions
6.9.9 Gibbs Energy Change and Non-Mechanical Work
6.9.10 Variation of Gibbs Energy with Temperature and Pressure
6.9.11 Clapeyron Equation
6.9.12 Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
6.9.13 Application of Clapeyron’s Classius Equation for Liquid ←→ Vapours Equilibrium
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 7: Thermochemistry
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Energy Stored in Atoms and Molecules
7.2.1 Measuring Heats of Reaction
7.2.2 Thermochemical Equations
7.3. Standard Enthalpies
7.3.1 Standard Enthalpy of an Element
7.3.2 Standard Heats of Formation
7.3.3 Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions
7.3.4 Variation of Heat of Reaction with Temperature: Kirchhoff’s Equation
7.3.5 Heat of Combustion
7.3.6 Enthalpy of Phase Transitions
7.3.7 Enthalpy Changes in Solution
7.4. Laws of Thermochemistry
7.4.1 Enthalpy of Atomization
7.4.2 Bond Enthalpy (ΔbondHO)
7.4.3 Lattice Energies
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 8: Chemical Kinetics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Rate of Reaction
8.2.1 Reactions Involving Different Stoichiometric Coefficients of Reactants and Products
8.2.2 Average Rate and Instantaneous Rate
8.2.3 Units of Rate of Reaction
8.2.4 Determination of the Rate of Reaction
8.3 Factors which influence the Rate of Reactions
8.4 Rate Laws
8.4.1 Characteristics of Rate Constant
8.4.2 Differences Between Rate of Reaction and Rate Constant
8.5 Rate Law Expression
8.6 Order of Reaction
8.6.1 Pseudo Chemical Reactions
8.7 Molecularity of a Reaction
8.7.1 Why the Reactions of Higher Order are Rare
8.7.2 Mechanism and Rate Law
8.7.3 How to Assign Mechanism to a Reaction
8.8 Integrated Rate Equations
8.8.1 Zero Order Reaction
8.8.2 First Order Reaction
8.8.3 Some Typical First Order Reactions
8.8.4 Applications of the First Order Rate Law Equation
8.8.5 Second Order Reactions
8.8.6 Example of Second Order Rate Equation
8.8.7 Third Order Reactions
8.8.9 Complications in the Determination of Order of Reaction: Complex Reactions
8.9 Effect of Temperature on Rate of Reaction
8.9.1 Activated Molecules and Temperature
8.10 Theories of Reaction Rates
8.10.1 Collision Theory of Reaction Rate
8.10.2 Catalysts and Activation Energy
8.10.3 Transition State Theory
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 9: Chemical Equilibrium
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Reversibility of Reactions
9.1.2 Equilibrium in Physical Processes
9.2.1 Solid–Liquid Equilibrium
9.2.2 Liquid–Vapour Equilibrium
9.2.3 Solid–Vapour Equilibrium
9.2.4 Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Solid or Gases in Liquids
9.2.5 General Characteristics of Equilibrium Involving Physical Process
9.3 Chemical Equilibria
9.3.1 Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium
9.3.2 Limitations of the Equation for Chemical Equilibrium
9.3.3 Types of Chemical Equilibria
9.4 Law of Mass Action–Equilibrium Constant
9.4.1 Application of Law of Mass Action
9.4.2 Characteristics of Equilibrium Constant
9.4.3 Factors Influencing Equilibrium Constant
9.4.4 Units of Kc and Kp
9.4.5 Relationship Between Kc and Kp
9.4.6 Change in the Values of Kc and Kp with the Change in the Form of Chemical Equation
9.4.7 Heterogeneous Chemical Equilibria
9.5 Aplications of Equilibrium Constants
9.5.1 Predicting the Extent of Reaction
9.5.2 Predicting the Direction of the Reaction
9.6 Temperature Dependenceof Equilibrium Constant
9.7 Calculation of Equilibrium Concentrations and Equilibrium Presures
9.8 Effect of Addition of an Inert Gas
9.8.1 Effect of Addition of Reactants to the Reaction
9.8.2 Dissociation of Dinitrogen Tetroxide
9.8.3 Calculation of Degree of Dissociation from Density Measurements
9.9 Homogeneous Chemical Equilibrium in Liquid State
9.10 Relationship Between Equilibrium Constant K, Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G
9.11 Le Chatelier’s Principle
9.11.1 Application to physical Equilibrium
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 10: Ionic Equilibrium
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Arrhenius Theory of Ionization
10.2.1 Ostwald’s Dilution Law
10.2.2 Factors Affecting the Degree of Dissociation
10.2.3. Limitations of Arrhenius Theory
10.3 Acids, Bases and Salts
10.3.1 Arrhenius Theory
10.3.2 The Bronsted-Lowry Theory
10.3.3 Lewis Theory
10.3.4 Influence of Solvents on Acid Strength
10.3.5 Alkalis, Acids and Amphoteric Hydroxides
10.3.6 Determination of Relative Strengths of Acids
10.3.7 Factors Influencing the Strength of an Acid
10.3.8 Acid–Base Strength and the Molecular Structure
10.4 Dissociation of Weak Acids and Weak Bases
10.4.1 Dissociation Constants of Polybasic Acids
10.4.2 Dissociation of Weak Base
10.5 Ionization Constant of Water and its Ionic Product
10.5.1 The pH Scale
10.5.2 Relation Between Ka and Kb
10.5.3 Common Ion Effect in the Ionization of Acids and Bases
10.6 Acid–Base Neutralization —Salts
10.6.1 Hydrolysis of Salts and the pH of Their Solutions
10.7 Buffer Solution
10.7.1 pH Values of Buffer Mixtures
10.8 Acid – Base Indicators
10.8.1 Theory of Indicators
10.8.2 Selection of Indicators in Acid-Base Titrations
10.9 Solubility Product
10.9.1 Common Ion Effect
10.9.2 Applications of Solubility Product
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 11: Redox Reactions
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Redox Reactions Involving Electron Transfer and Bond Breaking
11.2.1 Electron Transfer Involving Essentially Covalent Molecules
11.2.3 Competitive Electron Transfer Reactions
11.3 Oxidation Numbers
11.3.1 Oxidation Numbers of Elements in Covalent Compounds
11.3.2 Rules for Assigning Oxidation Number to an Atom
11.3.3 Average Oxidation Numbers
11.3.4 Oxidation State
11.3.5 Distinction Between Oxidation Number and Valency
11.3.6 Redox Reactions in Terms of Oxidation Number
11.3.7 Oxidation Number and Naming of Compounds
11.4 Types of Redox Reactions
11.4.1 Balancing of Redox Reactions
11.4.2 Balancing of Redox Reactions by Oxidation Number Method
11.4.3 Balancing of Redox Reactions by Ion – Electron Method
11.5 Redox Reactions as the Basis For Titrations
11.5.1 Limitations of Concepts of Oxidation Number
11.6 Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes
11.6.1 Electrode Potential
11.6.2 The Standard Hydrogen Electrode
11.6.3 Standard Electrode Potentials
11.6.4 Reference Electrodes
11.6.5 Factors Affecting the Values of Standard Electrode Potentials
11.6.6 Salt Bridge and its Function
11.6.7 Electrochemical Series
11.6.8 Application of Electrochemical Series
11.7 Importance of the Redox Reactions in Human Activity
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 12: Electrochemistry
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Electrochemical Cells
12.2.1 Representation of an Electrochemical Cell
12.2.2 Electrochemical Changes: Electrolytic Cells and Galvanic Cells
12.2.3 Types of Electrodes
12.2.4 Electromotive Force of the Cell
12.2.5 Reversible and Irreversible Cells
12.3 Electrical Energy
12.3.1 Standard Free Energies of Half-Cell Reactions
12.3.2 Dependence of Redox Potential on Ionic Concentration and on Temperature
12.3.3 Nernst Equation for Single Electrode Reaction
12.3.4 Equilibrium Constant from Nernst Equation
12.3.5 Electrochemical Cell and Gibbs Energy of the Reaction
12.3.6 Relationship Between Electrical Energy and Enthalpy Change of Cell Reaction
12.4 Concentration Cells
12.5 Conductance
12.5.1 Conductance of Electrolytes
12.5.2 Factors Affecting Electrical Conductivity of Electrolytic Solutions
12.5.3 Molar Conductivity or Molar Conductance
12.5.4 Equivalent Conductance
12.5.5 Measurement of the Conductance of Solutions
12.5.6 Factors Affecting Variation of Molar Conductance
12.6 Kohlrausch’s Law
12.6.1 Applications of Kohlrausch's Law
12.6.2 Conductometric Titrations
12.7 Electrolysis
12.8 Overvoltage
12.8.1 Cathode Products
12.8.2 Anode Products
12.8.3 Mercury Cathodes
12.9 Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
12.9.1 Faraday's First Law of Electrolysis
12.9.2 Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis
12.9.3 Application of Electrolysis
12.10 Batteries
12.10.1 Primary Cells
12.10.2 Secondary Cells
12.10.3 Fuel Cells
12.11 Corrosion
12.11.1 Hydrogen Evolution Type
12.11.2 Differential Oxygenation Corrosion
12.11.3 Passivity of Metals
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 13: Stoichiometry
13.1 Atomic Weights and Equivalent Weights
13.1.1 Determination of Equivalents
13.1.2 Determination of Atomic Weights (Chemical Methods)
13.1.3 Physical Methods of Determining Atomic Masses
13.2 Molecular Weights and Formulae of Gases
13.3 Methods for Determination of Density
13.4 Eudiometry or Gas Analysis
13.4.1 Abnormal Vapour Densities
13.5 Balanced Chemical Equation
13.5.1 Information Conveyed by Chemical Equation
13.5.2 Balancing of Chemical Equation
13.6 Numerical Calculation Based on Chemical Equations
13.7 Titrimetric Method of Analysis
13.7.1 Acid-Base Titrations
13.7.2 Redox Titrations
13.7.3 Precipitation Titrations
13.7.4 Complexometric Titrations
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 14: Surface Chemistry
14 A Adsorption
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Enthalpy of Adsorption
14.3 Types of Adsorption
14.4 Factors Affecting the Adsorption of Gas by Solid
14.5 Adsorption Isotherms
14.5.1 Freundlich Isotherm
14.5.2 Adsorption from Solution
14.5.3 Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm- Langmuir Adsorption Equation
14.6 Applications of Adsorption
Key Points
14 B Catalysis
14.7 Introduction
14.7.1 Promoters
14.7.2 Catalytic Poisons or Anticatalysts
14.7.3 Autocatalyst
14.7.4 Induced Catalysis
14.8 Types of Catalysis
14.8.1 Homogeneous Catalytic Reactions
14.8.2 Heterogeneous Catalytic Reactions
14.9 Characteristics of Catalyst
14.10 Theories of Catalysis
14.10.1 Intermediate Compound Formation Theory
14.10.2 Adsorption Theory
14.10.3 Activity and Selectivity of Heterogeneous Catalysis
14.10.4 Shape Selective Catalysis by Zeolites
14.11 Enzyme Catalysis
14.11.1 Characteristics of Enzyme Catalysis
14.11.2 Mechanism of Enzyme Catalysis
Key Points
14 C Colloids
14.12 Introduction
14.13 Colloidal State –An Intermediate State
14.13.1 Classification of Colloids
14.13.2 Classification Based on Physical State of Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Medium
14.13.3 Classification Based Upon Appearance
14.13.4 Classification Based on Interaction of Phases
14.13.5 Classification Based on Type of Particles of Dispersed Phase
14.13.6 Classification Based on Charge
14.14 Preparation of Colloids
14.15 Purification of Sols
14.16 Properties of Colloidal Solutions
14.16.1 Physical Properties
14.16.2 Colligative Properties
14.16.3 Optical Properties
14.16.4 Kinetic Properties
14.16.5 Electrical Properties
14.16.6 Origin of Charge
14.16.7 Electrical Double Layer
14.16.8 Electrosmosis
14.17 Stability of Colloids
14.17.1 Coagulation
14.17.2 Hardy–Schulz Law
14.17.3 Coagulation of Lyophilic Sols
14.17.5 Gold Number
14.18 Emulsions
14.18.1 Theories of Emulsification
14.19 Associated Colloids
14.20 Gels
14.21 Applications of Colloids
Key Points
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions
Chapter 15: Nuclear Chemistry
15.1 Discovery of Natural Radioactivity
15.1.1 Radioactive Radiations
15.1.2 Nuclear Stability
15.1.3 Measurement of Radioactivity
15.1.4 Units of Radioactivity
15.2 Nuclides
15.2.1 Types of Radioactive Decay
15.2.2 Disintegration Theory
15.2.3 Soddy–Fajan–Russel’s Group Displacement Law
15.3 Rate of Disintegration
15.3.1 Half-Life Period
15.3.2 Average Life or Mean Life Period
15.3.3 Radioactive Equilibrium
15.3.4 Parallel Path Decay
15.3.5 Maximum Yield of Daughter Nuclide
15.4 Radioactive Disintegration Series
15.5 Theories of Nuclear Stability
15.5.1 Neutron / Proton (n/p) Ratio
15.5.2 Mass Defect–Binding Energy
15.5.3 Mass Defect and Packing Fraction
15.6 Nuclear Reactions
15.6.1 Nuclear Reactions Versus Chemical Reactions
15.6.2 Artificially Induced Nuclear Reactions
15.6.3 Types of Nuclear Reactions
15.6.4 Artificial or Induced Radioactivity
15.6.5 Cause of Artificial Radioactivity – Bohr Theory of Compound Nucleons
15.6.6 Nuclear Fission
15.6.7 Nuclear Fusion
15.6.8 Plutonium and the Actinides
15.7 Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers
15.8 Aplications of Radioactive Isotopes
15.8.1 Carbon Dating
15.8.2. The Age of the Earth
15.8.3. Applications in Industry
15.8.4 Application in Agriculture
15.8.5 Application in Medicine
15.8.6 Therapeutic Uses
15.8.7 Applications in Biochemistrys
15.8.8 Applications of Radioisotopes in Chemistry
Answer Keys
Practice Exercise
Answer Keys
Hints and Solutions