Photochemical Reactors: Theory, Methods, and Applications of Ultraviolet Radiation

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Companion Website
Chapter 1 Background and History
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Early Applications, Discoveries
1.3 Development of Modern Principles of Photochemistry
1.4 Laws of Photochemistry: People and Personalities
1.4.1 Grotthuss–Draper Law: First Law of Photochemistry
1.4.2 Stark–Einstein Law: Second Law of Photochemistry
1.4.3 Bunsen–Roscoe Law: The Law of Reciprocity
1.5 Natural Photochemical Processes
1.6 Atmospheric Chemistry
1.7 Early Discoveries and Applications
1.7.1 Photography
1.7.2 Disinfection Science
1.7.3 Engineering Applications of UV Radiation in Drinking Water Disinfection
1.7.4 Engineering Applications of UV Radiation in Disinfection of Municipal Wastewater
1.8 Contemporary Applications
1.8.1 Disinfection of Water
1.8.2 Direct Photolysis in Water Treatment
1.8.3 Disinfection of Air (UVGI) and Surfaces
1.9 Market Size and Growth
1.10 Objectives for Book
1.11 Approaches Used in Book
Notes
References
Chapter 2 Photochemical Reactions
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Laws of Photochemistry
2.3 Energy in Photochemical Processes
2.4 Kinetics
2.4.1 Kinetics of Thermal Chemical Reactions
2.4.2 Kinetics of Photochemical Reactions: Monochromatic Radiation Source, Electromagnetic Energy Basis
2.4.2.1 Limiting Case 1: Opaque Solution
2.4.2.2 Limiting Case 2: Transparent Solution
2.4.2.3 Kinetics of Photochemical Reactions: Photon Basis
2.4.2.4 Limiting Case 1: Opaque Solution
2.4.2.5 Limiting Case 2: Transparent Solution
2.5 Summary of Expressions to Describe Photochemical Kinetics: Monochromatic Radiation Sources
2.5.1 Kinetics of Photochemical Reactions: Polychromatic Radiation Source, Photon Basis
2.6 Summary
Notes
References
Chapter 3 Photochemical Reactor Theory
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Basic Principles of Material (Molar or Mass) Balance
3.3 Basic Chemical Reactor Models
3.3.1 Batch Reactor Model
3.3.2 Ideal Continuous-Flow Stirred Tank Reactor Model (CFSTR)
3.3.3 Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor Model (PFR)
3.3.4 CFSTR Cascade Model
3.3.5 Effects of Mixing on Performance in Chemical Reactors – Material Balance Approach
3.3.6 Time as a Master Variable – Residence Time Distribution Function
3.3.7 Effects of Mixing on Performance in Chemical Reactors – Segregated-Flow Model
3.4 Models for Photochemical Reactors
3.4.1 Dose as the Independent (Master) Variable
3.4.2 Batch Reactor
3.4.3 Fluence Rate Fields in Photoreactors
3.4.4 Effects of Mixing on Performance of UV Photoreactors
3.4.5 Prediction of Performance in Photochemical Reactors – Segregated-Flow Model
3.5 Executable Model
3.6 Summary
Notes
References
Appendix 3.A Derivation of Relationship to Describe Transient (Start-up) Behavior in an Ideal CFSTR
Appendix 3.B Derivation of Normalized Residence Time Distribution Functions for CFSTR Cascade Systems
3.B.1 Single CFSTR
3.B.2 Cascade of Two Identical CFSTRs
3.B.3 Cascade of Three Identical CFSTRs
3.B.4 Generalization of Results to a Cascade of n CFSTRs in Series
Appendix 3.C Proof of Segregated-flow Model Based on Probability Theory
Chapter 4 Ultraviolet Radiation Sources
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Incandescence
4.3 Solar Radiation
4.4 Artificial Sources of UV Radiation
4.4.1 Gas Discharge Lamps: Mercury Lamps
4.4.2 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
4.4.3 Excimer Lamps
4.4.4 Lasers
4.4.5 Upconversion
4.5 Summary
Notes
References
Chapter 5 Actinometry and Radiometry
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Chemical Actinometry
5.2.1 Beam Nonuniformity
5.2.2 Reflection and Refraction
5.2.3 Absorption
5.2.4 Divergence
5.2.5 Absorption by Photoproducts
5.2.6 Extent of Absorption by Chemical Actinometer
5.2.7 Polychromatic Behavior
5.2.8 Alternative Bench-Scale Reactors for Use With Chemical Actinometers
5.2.8.1 Rate of Photon Application per Unit Volume of Solution: Ei A
5.2.8.2 Effective Path Length: l
5.2.9 Chemical Actinometers Used With UV Photoreactors
5.2.9.1 Uranyl Oxalate
5.2.9.2 Potassium Ferrioxalate
5.2.9.3 Iodide/Iodate
5.2.9.4 2-Nitrobezaldehyde
5.2.9.5 Nucleoside Actinometers
5.3 Radiometry
5.3.1 Absolute Cryogenic Radiometer (ACR)
5.3.2 Thermopile
5.3.3 Photomultiplier Tube (PMT)
5.3.4 Si Photodiode
5.3.5 Spectroradiometer
5.3.6 Micro Fluorescent Silica Detector (MFSD)
5.4 Summary
Notes
References
Chapter 6 Numerical Models for Simulation of Photochemical Reactor Behavior
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Fluence Rate (E') Field Models
6.2.1 Photon Emission Sub-Models
6.2.2 Sub-Models to Account for Optical Behavior
6.2.2.1 Reflection and Refraction
6.2.2.2 Divergence/Dissipation
6.2.2.3 Combination of Absorption (Beer–Lambert Law) and Reflection
6.2.3 Fluence Rate Field Models
6.2.3.1 Point-Source Summation/Line-Source Integration (PSS/LSI)
6.2.3.2 Multiple Segment Source Summation (MSSS)
6.2.3.3 Radiative Transfer Equation (RTE)
6.2.3.4 Surface Power Apportionment for Cylindrical Excimer Lamps (SPACE)
6.2.3.5 Ray Tracing
6.3 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
6.3.1 Governing Equations: Fluid Mechanics
6.3.1.1 Gravity
6.3.1.2 Differential Pressure
6.3.1.3 Shear Stress
6.3.2 Index (Tensor) Notation
6.3.3 Governing Equations: Transport of Reactants
6.3.4 Simulations for Systems Operating in the Turbulent Regime
6.3.5 Accuracy of Turbulence Models for Flow Field Simulations
6.3.5.1 Open-Channel UV Photoreactor; Vertical Lamp Orientation
6.3.5.2 Closed, Single-Lamp, Annular Reactors
6.3.5.3 Closed-Vessel, Cross-Flow, Four-Lamp Reactor
6.3.5.4 Reactors with Internal Baffles
6.3.6 Process Simulations by CFD-E' Field Modeling
6.3.7 Selection of Sub-Models
6.3.7.1 Reaction Kinetics Sub-Model
6.3.7.2 Fluence Rate Field Sub-Model
6.3.7.3 CFD Sub-Model
6.3.7.4 General Factors to Consider in Sub-Model Selection
6.4 Summary
Notes
References
Appendix 6.A PSS Model Implementation in Spreadsheet Format
Simulation of Fluence Rate Field in Cylindrical Lamp Reactor
Simulation of Fluence Rate Field in Flat-Screen Reactor
Interpretation of Simulation Results
Chapter 7 Validation of Photochemical Reactors
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biodosimetry
7.3 Mathematical Descriptions of UV Photoreactor Validation by Biodosimetry
7.3.1 Gaussian Dose Distribution, First-Order Kinetics
7.3.2 Simulated Dose Distributions, First-Order Kinetics
7.3.3 Biodosimetry Experiment
7.3.4 Challenge Organisms Commonly Used in Biodosimetry
7.3.5 Effects of Variability in Challenge Organism Dose–Response Behavior on Biodosimetry
7.3.6 Use of Chemical Actinometers for Reactor Validation
7.3.7 Lagrangian Actinometry
7.3.8 Convolution Hypothesis – Theoretical Background
7.3.9 Convolution Hypothesis – Experimental Verification
7.3.10 Application of LA
7.3.11 Microsphere Dose–Response Behavior
7.3.12 Reactor Testing
7.3.13 Integration of MFSD and CFD-E' Simulations
7.4 UV Photoreactor Validation Protocols
7.4.1 Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidance Manual for the Long-Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (UVDGM)
7.4.2 Österreichisches Normungsinstitut (ÖNORM)
7.4.3 Deutsche Vereinigung des Gas- und Wasserfaches (DVGW)
7.4.4 National Water Research Institute (NWRI)
7.4.5 NSF/ANSI
7.5 Summary
Appendix 7.A Description of the Error Function and Its Complement
Notes
References
Chapter 8 Methods for Quantification of Microbial Responses to UVC Irradiation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation Resulting from UVC Irradiation
8.3 Reproductive Cycles of Common Microbial Groups
8.3.1 Bacterial Reproduction
8.3.2 Replication of Viruses
8.3.3 Life Cycle of Protozoa
8.3.4 Reproduction of Algae
8.4 Lessons Learned from use of Inappropriate Methods
8.4.1 Protozoan Parasites
8.4.2 Fish Parasites
8.4.3 Algae
8.4.4 Viruses
8.5 Quantification of Viable Microorganisms with UV Disinfection Systems
8.5.1 Bacteria
8.5.1.1 MPN-DCM
8.5.1.2 Membrane Filtration
8.5.1.3 Compartment Bag Test
8.5.2 Viruses
8.5.2.1 Plaque Formation
8.5.2.2 Cytopathic Effect (CPE)
8.5.3 Protozoa
8.5.3.1 Animal Infection
8.5.3.2 Cell Culture
8.5.4 Algae
8.6 Molecular Biology
8.6.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction and Related Methods
8.6.1.1 Integrated Cell Culture/PCR
8.6.1.2 Long Amplicon q-PCR
8.6.1.3 Molecular Viability Testing
8.6.1.4 Intercalating Dyes/PCR
8.7 Summary
Notes
References
Chapter 9 UV Disinfection of Drinking Water and Municipal Wastewater
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Primary vs. Secondary Disinfection
9.3 Motivations for Use of UV-Based Disinfection
9.4 Traditional View of Drinking Water and Municipal Wastewater as Separate Domains
9.4.1 Differences Between Water and Wastewater Disinfection
9.5 Disinfection Kinetics
9.5.1 Mathematical Models of UV Disinfection Kinetics
9.5.1.1 Single-Event Model
9.5.1.2 Series-Event Model
9.5.1.3 Multi-Target Model
9.5.1.4 Two-Population Models
9.6 Microbial Repair Processes
9.6.1 Photochemical Reversal of UV-Induced Damage
9.6.2 Excision-Resynthesis Repair (aka Excision Repair)
9.6.3 Recombination Repair
9.6.4 Effects of Repair Processes
9.7 Hydraulic Behavior of UV Disinfection Systems
9.7.1 Head Loss
9.7.1.1 Open-Channel Systems
9.7.1.2 Closed-Vessel Systems
9.7.2 Flow Conditioning
9.8 Fouling in UV Photoreactors
9.8.1 Mechanisms of Inorganic (Exterior) Fouling
9.8.2 Methods for Mitigation of Fouling
9.9 Selection and Design of UV Disinfection Systems
9.9.1 Stochastic Methods of Reactor Analysis
9.10 Summary
9.10 Notes
References
Chapter 10 Photolysis and Advanced Reaction Processes for Control of Trace Contaminants
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Direct Photolysis
10.3 Electrical Power Consumption
10.3.1 Electrical Energy per Mass
10.3.2 Electrical Energy per Order
10.4 Physical/Chemical Properties of Photosensitive Contaminants
10.5 Laboratory Experiments for Estimation of Photochemical Kinetic Parameters
10.5.1 Collimated Beam
10.5.2 Effective Path Length Approach
10.5.3 Parallel Photolysis
10.6 Effects of Solution Composition on Rates of Direct Photolysis
10.7 Indirect Processes
10.8 Experimental Methods Used to Estimate Rate Constants for Reactive Intermediates
10.8.1 Direct Measurement
10.8.2 Competition Kinetics
10.9 UV Advanced Oxidation Processes (UV/AOPs)
10.10 H2O2/UV Process
10.10.1 Chlorine/UV Process
10.10.2 Chloramine/UV Process
10.10.3 Persulfate/UV Process
10.10.4 Vacuum UV
10.11 UV Advanced Reduction Processes (UV-ARPs)
10.11.1 SO32-/UV Process
10.12 Chapter Summary
Notes
References
Chapter 11 UV Disinfection of Air and Surfaces
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 UVGI Devices
11.1.2 Upper-Room UVGI (UR-UVGI)
11.1.3 Lower-Room UVGI (LR-UVGI)
11.1.4 In-Duct Systems
11.1.5 In-Room and Mobile Devices
11.1.6 Isolated Rooms or Chambers
11.2 Safety, UV Exposure Limits
11.2.1 Ozone Generation
11.2.2 UVC-Induced Damage of Materials
11.3 Disinfection Kinetics for Airborne and Surface-Associated Microbes and Viruses
11.3.1 Genomic Models
11.4 Testing and Validation Methods
11.5 Simulations of System Performance
11.6 UV Disinfection of Surfaces
11.7 Summary
11.A Images to Illustrate Surface Roughness and Texture
11.B Illustrations of Sizes and Shapes of Bacteria and Viruses
Notes
References
Index
EULA