Pesticides in the Natural Environment: Sources, Health Risks, and Remediation

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Pesticides in the Natural Environment: Sources, Health Risks, and Remediation
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Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Classification of pesticides and loss of crops due to creepy crawlers
1. Introduction
2. Crop losses due to pests
3. Pesticide classification
4. Classification based on chemical structure
5. Organochlorine pesticides (OCP)
6. Organophosphate pesticides (OPP)
7. Carbamate pesticides
8. Pyrethroid pesticides
9. Classification based on mode of entry
9.1. Systematic pesticides
9.2. Contact pesticides
9.3. Fumigants
9.4. Stomach poisons and toxicants
9.5. Repellents
10. Classification based on target pest
11. Based on pesticide toxicity
12. Pesticide contamination, implications, and environmental impacts
13. Summary
References
Chapter 2: Ecological impacts of pesticides on soil and water ecosystems and its natural degradation process
1. Introduction
2. Persistence and circulation of pesticides in the ecosystem
3. Bioaccumulation of chemical pesticides in the food cycle
4. Pesticides and their mode of action
4.1. Action on nerve and muscle
4.1.1. Carbamate and organophosphate
4.1.2. Neonicotinoid
4.1.3. Organochlorine, avermectins, and bifenazate
4.1.4. Pyrethrins and pyrethroids
4.2. Target on growth inhibition
4.3. Target on the energy source
4.4. Bioprocessing of pesticides in animals
4.5. Pesticide impacts on soil ecosystem
4.6. Pesticide impacts on water ecosystem
4.7. Impacts of pesticides on human health
4.7.1. Acute health impacts on human
4.7.2. Chronic health effects
4.7.3. Pesticide impacts on youngsters
4.8. Familiar pesticides and their health effects
4.9. Natural degradation process
4.10. Detoxification of pesticides by bacteria
4.11. Enzymes involved in biodegradation of pesticides
4.11.1. Hydrolases
4.11.2. Esterases
4.11.3. Phosphotriesterases
4.11.4. Oxidoreductases
4.12. Phases of metabolism involved in degradation and detoxification of toxic metabolite
5. Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3: Fate and assessment of pesticide in aquatic ecosystem
1. Introduction
2. Sources, forms, and occurrence of pesticides in the ecosystem
3. Environmental fate of pesticides
4. Factors that influence the assessment of aquatic pesticide pollution
5. Future recommendations
6. Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Fate and adverse effects of pesticides in the environment
1. Introduction
2. Mechanisms involved in the determination of the initial fate of a pesticide in the environment
3. Transport of pesticides in the environment
3.1. Transport in the atmosphere
3.1.1. Drift of the wind
3.1.2. Volatilization
3.1.3. Erosion
3.2. Soil transport
3.2.1. Retention
3.2.2. Degradation
Chemical degradation
Hydrolysis
Redox reactions
Photodegradation
3.3. Transport of pesticides to water reservoirs
3.3.1. Lixiviation
3.3.2. Runoff
4. Use of pesticides worldwide
4.1. Countries that have banned the application of any of the pesticides analyzed
5. Impact of pesticide on the soil microbiology
5.1. Pesticides in the soil: Application rates and legislation
5.2. The microbiological diversity of the soil and pesticides
5.3. Consequences of pesticide contamination in the soil
5.4. Interaction pesticides-Microorganisms: Bioremediation and biodegradation
5.5. Adverse effects of pesticides on microorganisms present in the soil
5.6. Other effects
6. Pesticides and the response of plants
6.1. Plants and pests: Pests as pesticides?
6.1.1. Semiochemicals
6.1.2. Kairomones
6.1.3. Pheromones
6.2. Allelopathy
6.3. Herbivore-induced plant volatiles
7. Pesticides toxicity on nontarget terrestrial organisms
7.1. Pollinators
7.2. Bees
7.3. Wasps
7.4. Parasitoids
7.5. Ants
7.6. Butterflies
7.7. Beetles
7.8. Arthropod predators
7.9. Silkworms
7.10. Earthworms
7.11. Moths
7.12. Birds
7.13. Mammals in general
8. Pesticides impact on aquatic ecosystems
8.1. Atrazine
8.2. Butachlor
8.3. Carbaryl
8.4. Carbofuran
8.5. Cypermethrin
8.6. Chlorpyrifos
8.7. Dimethoate
8.8. Fipronil
8.9. Glyphosate
8.10. Malathion
9. Perspectives and future research
References
Chapter 5: Towards understanding the impact of pesticides on freshwater ecosystem
1. Introduction
2. Routes of aquatic pesticide pollution
3. Impact of pesticide pollution on aquatic ecosystem
4. Impact of pesticides on water quality
5. Impact of pesticides on flora of aquatic ecosystem
6. Impact of pesticides on fauna of aquatic ecosystem
7. Specific impacts of different categories of pesticides on aquatic fauna
8. Response to the risks of use of pesticides
9. Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Persistence of pesticides and their impacts on human health and environment
1. Introduction
2. Classification of pesticide
3. The fate of pesticides in the environment
3.1. Pesticides in environment
3.2. Pesticides in food
3.3. Pesticides in water
4. Pesticide affecting human health
4.1. Assessment of general human health
4.2. Women
4.3. Children
5. Conclusion
6. Future prospective
References
Chapter 7: Health risk
1. Introduction
2. Evaluation of the effect of pesticides on genotoxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity in laboratory conditions
3. Evaluation of pesticide genotoxicity using cytogenetic markers
4. Impacts of pesticide residues on food safety
5. Effects of pesticides on human health
6. Pesticide exposure risk assessment
6.1. Sparling: The regulatory framework for assessing risks to human health and environmental issues presented by shows
6.2. Consumption rate
6.3. Estimation of dietary exposure
6.4. Risk characterization
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 8: Neurodevelopmental and reproductive impacts of pesticides on pregnant women
1. Introduction
2. Effect on health and reproductive life
3. Neurodevelopmental effects of OP pesticides
4. Concerns at both high and low OP exposures
5. Summary
References
Chapter 9: Pesticides and human health: The noxious impact on maternal system and fetal development
1. Introduction
2. History of pesticides
3. Toxicity of common pesticides
3.1. Organophosphorous pesticides (OPs)
3.2. Carbamates
3.3. Organochlorines pesticides (OCs)
3.4. Pyrethrins and pyrethroids
4. Prevention of pesticide exposure
5. Adverse effect on human health and fetal development
5.1. Eyes
5.2. Lungs
5.3. Brain
5.4. Digestive system
5.5. Reproductive system
5.6. Maternal health
5.7. The placental barrier in pregnant women
5.8. Fetal development
6. Conclusion
7. Future prospects
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10: ytogenetical bioindication of pesticidal contamination
1. Introduction
2. Chromosomal disorders
2.1. People
2.2. Agricultural animals
2.3. Laboratory animals
3. Micronuclear analysis
3.1. Micronuclear analysis and cytological disorders in nuclear erythrocytes of animals
3.1.1. Fish
3.1.2. Amphibians
3.1.3. Reptiles
3.1.4. Birds
3.2. Micronuclear analysis and cytological disturbances in the erythrocytes of peripheral blood of mammals and human
4. Plant test systems
5. Comet-test
6. Problems and prospects of cytogenetic bioindication
References
Chapter 11: Modulation of soil microbiome and related alterations in response to pesticides
1. Introduction
2. Impact of pesticides on soil microbial biome
2.1. Impact of pesticides on bacterial diversity
2.2. Impact of pesticides on mycorrhizae
2.3. Impact of pesticides on microalgae
3. Pesticides and associated alterations on the metabolism of microbes
3.1. Effect on biodegradation and mineralization
3.2. Effect on phosphorus solubilization
3.2.1. Phosphorus solubilizing enzymes: An ultimately affected participant
3.3. Reverberation of pesticides on nitrogen fixation
4. Future area of research
5. Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 12: Botanical pesticides as alternatives for more sustainable crops and healthy foods
1. Introduction
1.1. Pesticides in agriculture and the consequences of their use
2. Botanical pesticides in agriculture
2.1. Plant-based products used against insects and mites
2.2. Anti-fungal effects of botanical pesticides
2.3. Some remarks on the herbicide effect of plant extracts
3. Challenges in the use of plant-based pesticides
4. Future recommendations
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13: The potential use of essential oils as natural biocides against plant pathogens
1. Introduction
1.1. Common diseases in crops
2. Biological activities of EOs
2.1. EOs with biocidal activities
2.2. EOs with antibacterial activities
3. Challenges
3.1. Non-selective action of EO
3.2. EOs effects on non-target soil microorganisms
4. Future directions
5. Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives to reduce the use of pesticides
1. Introduction
2. Advantages and disadvantages of conventional pesticides
3. Mobility of pesticides in different environments
4. Pesticide degradation and the risk of degradation products
5. Plant growth-promoting bacteria
5.1. Applications of plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
6. Plant pathogens
7. Pesticide resistance
7.1. Changes in pesticide binding sites
7.2. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
7.3. GABA receptors and other ligand-gated chlorine channels
7.4. Voltage-dependent sodium channels
7.5. Insecticidal microbial toxins
7.6. Biotransformation
7.7. Acetylcholinesterase
7.8. Esterases
8. Alternatives to conventional pesticide use
8.1. Cultural control
8.2. Physical and mechanical control
8.3. Biological approach and biopesticides
8.3.1. Biological control
Direct interactions with plant pathogens
Indirect interactions with plant pathogens
8.3.2. Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIP) and biochemical pesticides
Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIP)
Other bacterial proteins
Plant-produced proteins that act as deterrents of feeding (lectins)
Trypsin inhibitors
Biochemical pesticides
Compounds derived from microorganisms
Compounds derived from higher plants
Compounds derived from animals
8.4. Integrated pest management
9. A new approach for a dual function: Pesticide degradation coupled with biological control
9.1. Pure cultures
9.2. Design of defined mixed consortia for joint pesticide degradation and biocontrol and future perspectives
References
Chapter 15: Strategies for sustainable and ecofriendly pest management in Agroecosystem
1. Introduction: The imminent challenge to human health and ecosystem by chemical agriculture
2. Biopesticides-The future of pest control
2.1. Microbial pesticides
2.1.1. Bacteria
2.1.2. Fungi
2.1.3. Viruses
2.1.4. Protozoans
2.2. Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs)
2.3. Biochemical pesticides
2.3.1. Third-generation pesticides/juvenile hormone analogs
2.3.2. Semiochemicals and allelochemicals for pest control
2.4. Vermicompost
2.5. Plant extract and essential oil-based pesticides
2.6. Neem oil as a pest control agent
3. Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Pesticides removal from aqueous streams through anaerobic and aerobic biological treatment processes
1. Introduction
2. Pesticides
3. Biological wastewater treatment
3.1. Activated sludge
3.2. Membrane bioreactors (MBR)
3.3. Moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR)
3.4. Biological activated carbon (BAC)
3.5. Wetlands
3.6. Trickling filters
4. Pesticides removal from liquid streams through anaerobic and aerobic biological treatment processes
4.1. Biological degradation of pesticides
4.2. Pesticide removal by aerobic and anaerobic biological processes
5. Final considerations
References
Chapter 17: The potential use of essential oils as natural biocides against plant pathogens
1. Introduction
2. Pesticide exposure and toxicity consequences
3. Removal of pesticides by MOFs
3.1. MOFs-assisted adsorption of pesticides
3.2. MOFs-assisted degradation of pesticides
4. Mechanistic insight into MOFs and target molecules
5. Conclusion, current challenges, and future perspectives
Acknowledgment
Conflict of interest
References
Chapter 18: Removal pesticides by advanced techniques based on nanomaterials
1. Introduction
2. Classification of pesticides
2.1. Type A: Based on mode of action, pesticides may be categorized into following groups
2.1.1. Insecticide
2.1.2. Herbicide
2.1.3. Fungicide
2.1.4. Antimicrobials
2.1.5. Acaricide
2.1.6. Rodenticides
2.2. Type B: Based on chemical structures and compositions, pesticides may be categorized into the following groups
2.2.1. Organochlorine pesticides
2.2.2. Organophosphate pesticides
2.2.3. Carbamate pesticide
2.2.4. Substituted urea
3. Environmental concerns of pesticides
4. Photocatalysis
5. Conservative adsorbents used for degradation of pesticides
6. Deprivation methodologies for pesticides
6.1. Chemical treatment techniques
6.1.1. Iron-enhanced sand filters (IESFs)
6.1.2. Chlorination
6.1.3. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)
6.1.4. Adsorption
6.2. Physical treatment techniques
6.2.1. Anaerobic-aerobic biological processes
6.2.2. Removal of pesticides by activated sludge and bioreactor-based membrane
6.2.3. Incineration
6.2.4. Deep-well injection and ground burial
6.3. Advanced treatment techniques base on nanomaterials
6.3.1. Metal based nanoparticles
6.3.2. Carbon-based nanoparticles
7. Degradation methods for pesticides by nanomaterials
7.1. OCs pesticides
7.2. OPs pesticides treatment
7.3. Degradation of carbamate pesticides
7.4. Degradation of miscellaneous pesticides
7.5. Degradation of pesticides via bio nanocomposite
8. Utilization of green synthesized nanomaterials
9. Conclusions and future scope
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 19: Pesticides removal techniques from the aquatic environment
1. Introduction
1.1. Types of classification of pesticides
1.2. Bio-pesticides
1.2.1. Microbial pesticides
1.2.2. Plant incorporated protectants (PIPs)
1.2.3. Biochemical pesticides
2. Effect of pesticides on human mankind
2.1. Risk of using pesticides
2.2. Human health
2.2.1. Cancer
2.2.2. Diabetes
2.2.3. Respiratory disorders
2.2.4. Parkinson's disease
2.2.5. Alzheimer's disease
2.2.6. Reproductive syndromes
3. Removal technologies
3.1. Pesticide removal techniques
3.2. Aquatic plants remove agrochemicals
3.3. Nanotechnology in pesticides removal
3.3.1. Carbon based nano-adsorbents
3.3.1.1. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
3.3.1.2. Graphene
3.3.2. Nanocrystalline metal oxides
3.3.2.1. Nanofiltration (NF) membrane
3.3.2.2. Zero-valent iron
3.4. Metabolic mechanism of pesticide
3.4.1. Bioadsorption
3.4.2. Bioaccumulation
3.4.3. Biodegradation
3.5. Microalgae-enhanced pesticide removal processes
3.5.1. Microplasma degradation of several herbicides in water
3.6. Techniques for chemical treatment
3.6.1. Filters made of iron-enhanced sand (IESFs)
3.6.2. Chemical treatment by chlorination
3.7. Advanced oxidation processes
3.7.1. Homogeneous AOP
3.7.2. Heterogeneous AOP
3.7.3. Process using free radicals
3.7.4. Photochemical degradation
3.7.5. Ozonation
3.7.6. Fenton
3.8. Adsorption
3.9. Treatment methods based on biology
3.10. Activated sludge under pressure
3.11. Membrane bioreactor (MBR)
3.12. Physical treatment techniques
3.13. Hybrid technologies
4. Wastewater treatment system decentralization
5. Pesticide remediation methods based on nanotechnology
5.1. Zinc oxide (ZnO) as photocatalyst
5.2. Photocatalysis
6. Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: Perspective of sustainable and intensified developments in treatment of pesticides from aqueous streams
1. Introduction
2. Pesticides
3. Sustainability
4. Process intensification
4.1. Origin
4.2. History
4.3. Concepts
4.4. Taxonomy
4.5. Sustainability and process intensification
4.6. Applications
5. Treatment approaches
5.1. Low-level pesticides waste water treatment approaches
5.1.1. Land cultivation
5.1.2. Soil pit
5.1.3. Plastic-lined pit
5.1.4. Concrete pit
5.1.5. Evaporation beds
5.1.6. Land filling
5.2. Thermal approaches
5.2.1. Incineration
5.2.2. Open burning
5.3. Physical approaches
5.3.1. Clays
5.3.2. Activated carbon
5.3.3. Zeolites
5.3.4. Polymeric materials
5.3.4.1. Cyclodextrins
5.3.4.2. Dendrimers
5.3.4.3. Hyper-cross-linked polymers
5.3.5. Low-cost adsorbents
5.4. Biological approaches
5.4.1. Natural attenuation
5.4.2. Bioaugmentation
5.4.3. Biostimulation
5.4.3.1. Oxygen-enhanced biostimulation
5.4.3.2. Nitrate-enhanced biostimulation
5.4.3.3. Nutrient-enhanced biostimulation
5.4.4. Phytoremediation
5.4.5. Composting
5.5. Chemical approaches
5.5.1. Ultraviolet (UV)-H2O2 and UV-ozone remediation
5.5.2. Photocatalysis TiO2
5.5.3. Photocatalysis-quantum dots
5.5.4. Fenton oxidation
5.5.5. Electro-Fenton oxidation
5.5.6. Photo-Fenton oxidation
5.5.7. Photo-Fenton oxidation with aerobic reactor
5.5.8. Photo-electro-Fenton oxidation
5.5.9. KPEG
5.6. Physicochemical remediation
5.6.1. Photodegradation
5.6.2. Ultrasound-assisted remediation/sonochemical degradation
5.6.3. Hybrid sonochemical and other degradation methods
5.6.4. Ultrasound combined with Fenton process
5.6.5. Ultrasound combined with photo-Fenton process
5.6.6. Ultrasound combined with hydrogen peroxide
5.6.7. Ultrasound combined with carbon tetrachloride
5.6.8. Ultrasound combined with ozonation process (O3)
5.6.9. Ultrasound combined with photocatalytic process
6. Discussion
7. Conclusion and perspective
References
Chapter 21: Biomonitoring and biomarkers of pesticide exposure and human health risk assessment
1. Introduction
2. Biomarkers
2.1. Mechanisms of biomarker action
2.2. Bioindicators
2.3. Enzymes
2.4. Cytogenetic markers
2.5. Metabolic processes
2.6. Behavioral changes
3. Functional disorders
3.1. Biomonitoring
3.2. Biomonitoring tools
3.2.1. Hair
3.2.2. Blood
3.2.3. Urine
3.2.4. Health outcome
4. Data interpretation in biomonitoring studies
5. Significance of biomonitoring studies
6. Future perspectives
7. Conclusion
References
Index
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