Pedestrian and Evacuation Dynamics 2008

Preface
Contents
Part I Experiment and Evacuation
The UK WTC9/11 Evacuation Study: An Overview of the Methodologies Employed and Some Preliminary Analysis
Introduction
Research Themes
Research Protocols
Recruitment
Interview Structure and Content
Development of HEED Database and Coding Process
Preliminary Data Analysis
Stoppage Data for WTC1
Stair Travel Speeds
Response Times
Concluding Comments
References
Evacuation Movement in Photoluminescent Stairwells
Introduction
Methodology
Experimental Design
Data Gathering
Field Study Results
Questionnaire Results
Respondent Profile
Alarm and Initial Response
Evacuation Times
Stairwell Evacuation
Data from the Video Cameras
Time to Start
Speed of Movement
Observed Behavior
Summary and Conclusions
Evacuees' Subjective Assessment of PLM Signage
Occupant Movement
Comparison of PLM Installations
Comparison of PLM with Emergency Lighting
References
Automatic Extraction of Pedestrian Trajectories from Video Recordings
Introduction and Motivation
Experiments
Extraction of Trajectories
Calibration
Recognition
Tracking
Height Detection
Results
Implementation
Trajectories
Combination of Camera Views
Missing Frames
Error
Summary and Outlook
References
Stairwell Evacuation from Buildings: What We Know We Don't Know
Introduction
Occupant Movement in Building Evacuation
Current Study
Conclusions
References
Evacuation of a High Floor Metro Train in a Tunnel Situation: Experimental Findings
Introduction
Description of the Train
Description of the Environmental Factors
Description of the Participants
Physical Data of the Participants
Distribution of the Participants
Documentation and Evaluation of the Experiments
Description of the Evacuation Set up
Observations and Findings
Trial 1: Flow Rates
Trial 2: Exit Behavior
Trial 2: Formation of Congestions
Conclusions
References
Using Laser Scanner Data to Calibrate Certain Aspects of Microscopic Pedestrian Motion Models
Introduction
The Experiments at PAMELA
The Tracking Algorithm
Modelling of Stopping and Turning Movements
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Pedestrian Vision and Collision Avoidance Behavior: Investigation of the Information Process Space of Pedestrians Using an Eye Tracker
Background
Methodologies
Results
General Fixation Behavior
Fixations by the Object Type
Location of the Observed Fixations
Discussion
Conclusions
References
FDS+Evac: An Agent Based Fire Evacuation Model
Introduction
Method
Movement Algorithm
Interaction of the Agents and Fire
Results
Test Case A
Test Case B
Test Case C
Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Comparisons of Evacuation Efficiency and Pre-travel Activity Times in Response to a Sounder and Two Different Voice Alarm Messages
Introduction
Methods
Results
Shopping Center Restaurant Evacuation
Multistory Office Building Meeting Room Evacuation
University Teaching Laboratory Experiment with Three Alarm Types
Findings from Questionnaire-University Teaching Laboratory Experiment with Three Alarm Types
Discussion
Effects of Alarm Type on PTAT Recognition and Response Times
Perceived Seriousness of the Alarm
Group Interactions
Design Behavioural Scenarios
Conclusion
References
Design of Voice Alarms-the Benefit of Mentioning Fire and the Use of a Synthetic Voice
Introduction
Method
Design of Messages
Questionnaire Study at IKEA
Participants
Procedure
Evacuation Experiments at Lund University
Participants
Procedure
Results
Synthetic Versus Human Voice
With Versus Without `Fire'
Discussion
Conclusions
References
Enhanced Empirical Data for the Fundamental Diagram and the Flow Through Bottlenecks
Introduction
Review of Empirical Results
Fundamental Diagram
Bottleneck Flow
Research Project-Overview
Influence of the Measurement Method
Conclusions
References
Parameters of Pedestrian Flow for Modeling Purposes
Introduction
Fundamental Laws of Pedestrian Flow
The Theory for Emotional State, Density of Flow and Travel Speed Law
Special Cases of Foot Traffic Flows
Cross Flows
Contra Flows
Movement on Routs with Unlimited Width
Movement Through Door Aperture
Modeling of Pedestrians Movement in a Flow
Conclusions
References
Emergency Preparedness in the Case of a Tsunami-Evacuation Analysis and Traffic Optimization for the Indonesian City of Padang
Introduction
Related Work
Input Data
Geographical Information Derived from Remote Sensing
Inundation Scenarios
Socio-Economic Data
Simulation Framework
Results
Existing Problems
Conclusion
References
Case Studies on Evacuation Behaviour in a Hotel Building in BART and in Real Life
Evacuation Behaviour
Research Method
Research Aim, Focus and Selected Object
Test Scenario
Participants
Observations
BARTtrial
Case Studies
BARTtrial
BARTtrial participant 7082903
BARTtrial participant 7082904
BARTtrial participant 7082905
BARTtrial participant 7120401
BARTtrial participant 7120402
BARTtrial participant 7120403
BARTtrial participant 7120404
BARTtrial participant 7120405
Real Hotel
Real hotel participant 7101901
Real hotel participant 7101902
Real hotel participant 7101903
Real hotel participant 7101904
Real hotel participant 7101905
Real hotel participant 7101906
Real hotel participant 7101907
Real hotel participant 7101908
Real hotel participant 7102004
Comparison of Case Studies in BARTtrial and in Real Hotel
Conclusions and Further Work
References
Analysis of Empirical Trajectory Data of Pedestrians
Introduction
Low Density
Hybrid Approach
Medium-to-High Density
High Density
Social-Force Model
Improved Specifications of the Social-Force Model
Summary
References
Model-Based Real-Time Estimation of Building Occupancy During Emergency Egress
Introduction
Problem Definition
Sensor-Only Estimator
Model-Based Estimator for Building Egress Mode
People Movement Model
Sensor Models
Accounting for Constraints in the Estimate
Accounting for Constraints in the Covariance Estimate
Simulation Test Results
Conclusion
References
Experiments on Evacuation Dynamics for Different Classes of Situations
Introduction
Experiments
Description
Results
Conclusions
References
Prediction and Mitigation of Crush Conditions in Emergency Evacuations
Introduction
Definition of Crush Conditions
Spatial
Temporal
Perceptual and Cognitive Factors
Procedural
Summary
Case Studies
Rhode Island Nightclub
Gothenburg Dancehall
E2 Nightclub Incident
Hillsborough
Previous Work in the Field
Implicit
Explicit
Our Proposed Approach
Identification
Qualification
Quantification
Hybrid Approach
Benefits of Our Approach
Conclusion
References
Start Waves and Pedestrian Movement- An Experimental Study
Introduction and Experimental Setup
Results and Discussion
Clearance Time for Pedestrian Crossing
Purpose of the Study
Methodology
Results
Experiment Examples
Conclusions
References
Ship Evacuation-Guidelines, Simulation, Validation, and Acceptance Criteria
Ship Evacuation: History and Guidelines
Historical Background
Guidelines for Ship Evacuation
Simulation of Evacuation Processes on Passenger Ships
Influences on Ship Evacuation
The Procedure: Assembly and Embarkation Phase
ASET in the Case of a Ship
Calibration, Validation, and Verification
Calibration of Evacuation Models for Ships
Implementation and Verification
Validation of a Model Based on Simulation Results
Acceptance Criteria
Conclusions and Outlook
Safe Return to Port
Information Resources
Acknowledgements
References
Empirical Study of Pedestrians' Characteristics at Bottlenecks
Experimental Setup
Results
Density in Front of the Bottleneck
Density Inside the Bottleneck
Conclusions and Outlook
References
RFID Technology Applied for Validation of an Office Simulation Model
Introduction
Validation Approach
Criterion Variables
Goodness-of-Fit
Observation Method-RFID
Validation Results
Zone Utilisation
Employees
Discussion
References
Study on Crowd Flow Outside a Hall via Considering Velocity Distribution of Pedestrians
Introduction
Model
Simulation and Results
Conclusion
References
Analysis on the Propagation Speed of Pedestrian Reaction: Velocity of Starting Wave and Stopping Wave
Introduction
Experiments
Forthright Walking
Circular Walking
Cellular Automaton Simulations
Mean Field Analysis
Conclusion
References
Part II Simulation and Modeling
Toward Smooth Movement of Crowds
What is Jamology?
Modeling Crowds
Different Type of Models
Floor Field Model and its Extensions
Basic Update Rules
Resolution of Conflicts
Calculation of the Static Field in Arbitrary Geometries
Contraction at a Wide Exit
Parameters and Their Physical Relevance
Force Field
Smooth Movement
Inertia Effect
Anticipation
Obstacles
Deterministic Evacuation
Concluding Discussions
References
Modeling Evacuees' Exit Selection with Best Response Dynamics
Introduction
The Model and a Game Theoretic Formulation
An N-Player Game
Exit Selection Model
Mathematical Formulation of the Model
Additional Features of the Model
Computational Results
Discussion
Acknowledgements
References
Front-to-Back Communication in a Microscopic Crowd Model
Introduction
Characterizing Front-to-Back Communication
Modeling Front-to-Back Communication
The Floor Field Model
The Swarm Force Model
Front-to-Back Communication in the Swarm Force Model
Laboratory Scenario
Who Concert Disaster Scenario
Reconstructing the Plaza at Riverside Coliseum
Analysis of the Disaster
Conclusion
References
Comparison of Various Methods for the Calculation of the Distance Potential Field
Introduction
Methods for the Calculation of a Distance Potential Field
Short Mathematical Parenthesis: Vector Norms
Flood Fill Methods
Manhattan Metric
Chessboard Metric
Variant 1: Combination of Manhattan and Chessboard
Variant 2: 2 over Corners
Variant 3: Larger Neighborhoods
Dijkstra's Algorithm on a Visibility Graph
Ray Casting
Other Methods of Error Reduction
Analytical Considerations
Errors for Manhattan and Chessboard Metric
Error for Variant 1 (Combination)
Error for Variant 2 (2 over Corners)
Computation Times
Geometries
Results
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Agent-Based Simulation of Evacuation: An Office Building Case Study
Introduction
Evacuation Data Analysis
Evacuation Description
Analysis Results
Velocity vs. Density
Cumulative Characteristics of Egress
People Behavior
Simulation Model
Graph Decomposition
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
A Genetic Algorithm Module for Spatial Optimization in Pedestrian Simulation
Introduction
Initial Situation
Objectives
Requirements
Genetic Algorithms (GA)
General Definitions
The Evolutionary Model
Use of GA Framework
Realization of the Optimization Module
Data Structure
Mapping
Assessment Criteria
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Visualization
Interaction
Managing Plans
Performance
Tests
Results
Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Opinion Formation and Propagation Induced by Pedestrian Flow
Introduction
Model
Simulation and Analysis
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Passenger Dynamics at Airport Terminal Environment
Introduction
Trends and Challenges at Airports
Status Quo of Passenger Behavior
Airport Environment
Passenger Tracking Tool
Results
Gender
Travel Purpose-Business vs. Leisure
Groups
Baggage
Conclusion
Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Application Modes of Egress Simulation
Introduction
People Movement System (ICE)
Six Degrees of Simulation
Naïve Mode
Operational Mode
Predictive Mode
Engineered Mode
Interactive Mode
Real-Time Mode
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Investigating the Impact of Aircraft Exit Availability on Egress Time Using Computer Simulation
Introduction
The AASK Database
The airEXODUS Evacuation Model
Exit Availability Analysis Conducted Using AASK
Evacuation Modelling Analysis
The Geometry, Model Parameters and Scenarios
Evacuation Simulation Results
Conclusions
References
Bounded Rationality Choice Model Incorporating Attribute Threshold, Mental Effort, and Risk Attitude: Illustration to Pedestrian Walking Direction Choice Decision in Shopping Streets
Introduction
Conceptual framework
Preference Structure
Decision Heuristics
Choice of Heuristics
Illustration
Data
Operationalization
Model Estimation
Conclusion
References
A SCA-Based Model for Open Crowd Aggregation
Introduction
Related Works
Force-Based Models
CA-Based Models
MAS-Based Models
SCA Approach to Pedestrian Dynamics
Aggregation in Open Crowds
Conclusion and Future Works
References
Hardware Implementation of a Crowd Evacuation Model Based on Cellular Automata
Introduction
Cellular Automata
Basic Characteristics of the Evacuation Model
Implementation of the CA Model
Simulation Results
Conclusions
References
Applying a Discrete Event System Approach to Problems of Collective Motion in Emergency Situations
Introduction
Discrete Event Systems Modeling with Petri Nets
DES Basic Principles
Fundamental Notations of Petri Nets
Petri Net Application to Egress Dynamics
PN Modules for Rooms and Gateways
Remarks About PN Generalization and Timing
The Case Study
Conclusion and Future Developments
Acknowledgements
References
SIMULEM: Introducing Goal Oriented Behaviours in Crowd Simulation
Introduction
Goal Oriented Behavioural Model
Model Overview
Interaction Concepts
Simulation Architecture
Simulation Software Upgrades
Simulation Configuration
Simulation Run
Results Analysis
Results
Conclusion and Future Work
Acknowledgements
References
Conflicts at an Exit in Pedestrian Dynamics
Introduction
Floor Field Model
Floor Field
Conflict Resolution and Friction
Friction Function
Introduction of the Friction Function
Average Pedestrian Outflow Through an Exit
Experiments
Comparison Between the Experiment and the Theory
The Effect of an Obstacle
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Improving Pedestrian Dynamics Modeling Using Fuzzy Logic
Introduction
Conventional vs Pattern Recognition PDR Navigation
State of the Art Solutions in Gait Analysis
Gait Analysis
Step Type Classification
Stride Length Computation
Tests and Results
Conclusion
References
Modeling the Link Volume Counts as a Function of Temporally Dependent OD-Flows
Introduction
Data Sets
The Proposed Model
Discussion of the Model
References
Effect of Subconscious Behavior on Pedestrian Counterflow in a Lattice Gas Model Under Open Boundary Conditions
Introduction
Outline of Model
Simulation Results and Discussions
Conclusions
References
Hand-Calculation Methods for Evacuation Calculation-Last Chance for an Old-Fashioned Approach or a Real Alternative to Microscopic Simulation Tools?
Analysis of a High-Rise Building with Microscopic and Macroscopic Models
Results of Commercial Software Tools
Results of Macroscopic Hand-Calculation Methods
Analysis of a Theoretical School Building with Microscopic and Macroscopic Models
Results of Commercial Software Tools
Results of Macroscopic Hand-Calculation Methods
Conclusion
References
Adding Higher Intelligent Functions to Pedestrian Agent Model
Introduction
Pedestrian Modeling Platform for Hybrid Space Representation System
Introducing Artisoc
ASPF(Agent Simulator of Pedestrian Flow) ver.4-Implementation of Autonomous Pedestrian Agent
Concluding Remarks-ASSA Project as Further Study
References
"FlowTech" and "EvaTech": Two Computer-Simulation Methods for Evacuation Calculation
"FlowTech". Flow Movement Modeling
Workflow with FlowTech
Evacuation Simulation Example: WTC1
Future Work
"EvaTech". Individual Movement Modeling
Pedestrian Movement
Human Behavior
EvaTech Model Validation
Future Work
References
Large Scale Microscopic Evacuation Simulation
Introduction
Simulation Framework
Results
Conclusions
References
Numerical Optimisation Techniques Applied to Evacuation Analysis
Introduction
The Methodology
Demonstration Problem
The Solution
The Design Variables
Results and Discussion
Concluding Comments
Acknowledgements
References
A Multi-Method Approach to the Interpretation of Pedestrian Spatio-Temporal Behaviour
Introduction
Methodology
Heuristic Phase
Initial Results
Example Results Based on Motion Data
Conclusion
References
The Microscopic Model and the Panicking Ball-Bearing
Introduction
Panic
Panic in Microscopic Models
Microscopic Human Factors
Microscopic Human Factors in the Floor Field Model
Conclusion
References
Design of Decision Rules for Crowd Controlling Using Macroscopic Pedestrian Flow Simulation
Introduction
Control Concept
Macroscopic Simulation Model
Measurement Error Characteristics
Design of Decision Rules
Conclusion
References
3-Tier Architecture for Pedestrian Agent in Crowd Simulation
Introduction
How the Issue Raised
Conflicts in Path Planning
Realistic Movement
Long-Distance Pathfinding
Structure of the Architecture
Event Flow Control Tier
Navigation Tier
Pedestrian Dynamics Tier
Computer Experiments
Finger Effect
Edge Effect
Case Study with "Dead End"
Conclusions
References
Optimising Vessel Layout Using Human Factors Simulation
Introduction
Methodology for Assessing Human Factors Performance
The Components of the Human Performance Metric
Evaluation Scenarios
Functional Groups
Performance Measures
Defining the Human Performance Metric
Demonstration Application of the HPM
The Geometry
The Scenarios
The Simulation Software
Results and Analysis
Concluding Comments
References
Agent-Based Animated Simulation of Mass Egress Following an Improvised Explosive Device (IED) Attack
Venues Modeled and Software Used
Models' Features
Model Results
Models' Advantages and Limitations
Conclusions
References
A Novel Kinetic Model to Simulate Evacuation Dynamics
Introduction
Evacuation Dynamics Model
Problem and Model Formulation Description
Theoretical Model Formulation: The Kinetic Model of Evacuation
Model Simulation Studies and Comparison Results
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Egress Route Choice Modelling-Concepts and Applications
Introduction
Egress Route Choice Mechanisms Implemented in ASERI
Applications
References
Architectural Cue Model in Evacuation Simulation for Underground Space
Introduction
Architectural Cue Model for Underground Space Evacuation
Research Method
CAVE-Based Conjoint Analysis
Attributes of the Architectural Cues
The Design of Scenes with Paired Cues
Encoding and Decoding
Experiment
The Experiment Facilities
The Experiment Procedure
Analyzes
The Model Performance
The Attributes of Architectural Cues
Preference Between Stair and Exit
Conclusions
Outlook
References
Integrating Strategies in Numerical Modelling of Crowd Motion
Introduction
From Spontaneous to Actual Velocity
Notations
Handling of Contacts
Examples of Spontaneous Velocity
Shortest Path
Individual Strategies
Numerical Results
References
Small-Grid Analysis of Evacuation Processes with a Lattice Gas Model for Mixed Pedestrian Dynamics
Introduction
Simulation and Results
Conclusions
References
Evacuation Simulation and Human Behaviour Models in Tall Buildings
Introduction
Building Traffic Simulator
Passenger Model
Staircase Model
Elevator Model
Human Behaviour Model for Vertical Movement
Macroscopic Routing Model
Microscopic Reaction Models
World Trade Centre Evacuation
References
Proof of Evacuation Routes and Safety Exits: Time Data as the Main Criteria for the Evaluation of Escape Routes and Safety Exits?
Settings
Evacuation Times
Investigated Study Cases
Simulation Models
Outcomes
Evacuation Times
Exit Width
Path Length
Conclusions
References
Dependence of Modelled Evacuation Times on Key Parameters and Interactions
Introduction
Methods
Evacuation of a Single Rectangular Retail Enclosure (2000 m2)
Multi-Enclosure Building (up to 10-Storeys Served Office)
Results
Retail Enclosure Evacuations
Results: Multi-Storey Evacuation Simulations and Experiments Simulations
Validation-Unannounced Evacuation Experiments
Conclusions
Conclusions from Single Enclosure Evacuations
Conclusions from Multi-Storey Building Evacuations
References
A Modification of the Social Force Model by Foresight
Introduction
Single Lane Walking
Binary Interactions from Single Lane Following
Single Lane Head-on Collisions
2D Walking
Conclusions
References
Models for Crowd Movement and Egress Simulation
Some General Remarks
Model Classification
List of Models
Existing Model Reviews
The Wiki Approach
Internet Resources
Acknowledgements
References
Modelling Pedestrian Escalator Behaviour
Introduction
Data Collection
Escalator Model
Microscopic Escalator Model
Escalator Model Evacuation Demonstration
Evacuation Results
Concluding Comments
References
Introducing a Coupled Model for Simulating Crowd Behaviour
Context of Our Model
Perceiving-Acting Model
The Model Process
A Perception Model
A Planning Model
Target-Achievement and Obstacle-Avoidance as Local Navigation Model
Stress-Sensing Model
Conclusions and Outlook
Future Work
Acknowledgements
References
Evacuation Modelling of Fire Scenarios in Passenger Trains
Introduction
Evacuation Cases
Input Data
Evacuation Results
Movement Inside the Train
Evacuation of the Trains
Conclusions
References
Pedestrian Dynamics with Event-Driven Simulation
Introduction
Social-Force Models
General Considerations
Simplified One-Dimensional Realization
Motivation for Event-Driven Simulation
Event-Driven Simulation with Velocity-Adaptation
Results
Discussion and Summary
References
Part III Psychology
The Need for Behavioral Theory in Evacuation Modeling
Introduction
"Behavioral Facts"
Building Evacuation Models
Behavioral Technique 1: The Behavior Is Defined Entirely by the User
Behavioral Technique 2: The Behavior Is Simulated Based on a Specific Condition (if-then)
Behavioral Technique 3: The Behavior Is Simulated Based on Multiple Factors of Influence
Summary
Benefits of Behavioral Theory
Conclusion
References
NO_PANIC. "Escape and Panic in Buildings"-Architectural Basic Research in the Context of Security and Safety Research
Motivation
The Five Dimensions of Architecture
Qualities vs. Quantities
Signage vs. Space
Towards Architectural Solutions that Support Egress
Avoiding Delays in Egress
Avoiding Dualities
Architectural Elements for Managing Egress
Conclusions
References
Was It Panic? An Overview About Mass-Emergencies and Their Origins All Over the World for Recent Years
Introduction
What Is Panic?
Different Definitions of Panic or Panic Attack
Definitions of Crush and Stampede
Definitions Used in this Article
Panic, Stampede and Crush in the Media
Experiments on Panic or Decision-Making Processes
Discussion of the Experiments Performed by French and Mintz
Different Mass-Emergencies in the Case of "Panic"
Conclusions
References
Hierarchical Structure of the Mass and Group-Level Behaviors in Urban Rail Transfer Stations
Introduction
Hierarchical Structure of URT Station Space, Passenger Service Network and Mass
Passenger Organization Processes
Hierarchical Structure of URT Stations
Passenger Service Network
The Hierarchical Structure of the Mass
Analysis of the Features and Behaviors of Individuals and Groups
Individuals
(1) Human Physical Features
(2) Environmental Features
(3) Psychological and Sociological Features
(4) Individual Behaviors
Groups
Features of Groups
(1) Composition
(2) Relationships Within a Group
(3) Shapes and Areas
(4) Mobility
Behaviors of Groups
(1) Interactions of Members
(2) Interactions of Groups
The Impacts of Groups on the Crowd
(1) The Form and Mobility of Groups Make the Crowd Uneven
(2) Groups Are More Powerful than Individuals in Conflicts
(3) Breaking and Regrouping of Groups Disturb the Smooth Flow
Process Modeling of the Mass and Simulation Framework Based on Group Level Behaviors
Process Modeling of the Mass
(1) Information Exchanging Space and Information Transmitting
(2) Information Updating and Behaviors of All Hierarchies
URT Station Mass Movement Simulation Framework
(1) Database
(2) Models
(3) Modules
Discussion
Acknowledgements
References
The Use of a Structure and Its Influence on Evacuation Behavior
Introduction
Information Carried by the Individual
Procedures Employed
Addressing the Situation
Concluding Remarks
References
Part IV Miscellaneous
Inhalation Injury of Lung and Heart After Inhalation of Toxic Substances
Introduction
Toxic Agents
Irritant Effects of Inhalant Noxious Agents
Ambient Air Pollution
Acute Smoke Injury
Clinical Manifestations
Medical Problems with Pedestrian Evacuation
Medical Problems in Firefighters
Treatment of Smoke Inhalation
Conclusion
References
Quantitative Comparison of International Design Standards of Escape Routes in Assembly Buildings
Introduction
General Approach
Flow Capacity of Exits
Comparison of Raw Data
Minimum Width of Exit Doors
Design Occupant Load
Increase of Exit Width per Occupant
Results
Exit Width Correlated with Assembly Room Area
Travel Times Correlated with Assembly Room Area at Design Occupant Density
Travel Times Correlated with Assembly Room Area at Normalized Occupant Density of 4 p/m2
Some Further Differences in the Codes
Discussion
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Visualizing the Human Form for Simulation and Planning
Introduction
Background
Elaboration
Discussion of the Criteria in the Taxonomy
Dependencies Between Criteria in the Taxonomy
Conclusion
References
A Real-Time Pedestrian Animation System
Introduction
System Overview and Levels of Processing
Skeletal Animation Generation
Behavior Model Integration
Implementation and Results
Conclusion
References
Modeling of Escape Routes According to Occupancy, Economy, and Level of Safety in Slovak Republic
Building Description
Requirements for the Escape Routes
Calculations
Conclusion
References
List of Participants