The aim of the book was to produce the most comprehensive examination of a pandemic that has ever been attempted. By cataloging the full extent of the Zika pandemic, this book will be the most complete history and epistemic contextualization ever attempted to date. The work should function as the primary source for students, researchers, and scholars who need information about the Zika pandemic.
This book examines the technical literature, digital and popular literature, and online materials to fully contextualize this event and provide a bona fide record of this event and its implications for the future. It is somewhat serendipitous that while this work was underway, we are going through another pandemic. One of the primary lessons we did not learn by Zika was pandemic events will return repeatedly, and we need to learn from each one of them to prepare the planet for the next one. Just because Zika seemed to have died out does not make it less important. We were lucky that the virus evolved into what seemed to be a less virulent version of itself, and the vector mosquitoes were concentrated elsewhere. Finally, this book represents a tour de force in scholarship involving nearly 4,000 sources of information and does not shy from a detailed examination of the controversies, conspiracies, and long-term consequences when we avoid learning from outbreaks, such as Zika.
Author(s): David M. Berube
Series: Risk, Systems and Decisions
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 655
City: Cham
Foreword
Acknowledgements
References
Introduction
What is Zika?
What Can We Learn?
The Chapters
References
Contents
1 Why Study Zika?
1.1 Aegypti and Albopictus Mosquitoes Are Robust
1.2 Underreporting Frequencies and Issues Related to Immunity
1.3 Sexual Transmission
1.4 Microcephaly
1.5 ZIKV Crosses Brain and Placental Barriers
1.6 Travel Warnings and Women
1.7 Blue Marble Health
1.8 Cross-Protection/Cross-Infection
1.9 Long-Term ZIKA
1.10 Glioblastoma
1.11 Nothing to See Here
1.12 Conclusion
References
2 Epidemic Events Are Communication Events
2.1 Conspiracy Theories
2.1.1 Pyriproxyfen
2.1.2 Oxitec Caused the Outbreak
2.1.3 Depopulation
2.1.4 Weaponizing Viruses
2.1.5 Vaccines and IPAK (Institute of Pure and Applied Knowledge)
2.1.6 Some Others
2.2 Unknowns
2.2.1 Mutations
2.2.2 Naïve Populations
2.3 Coinfection
2.4 Conclusion
References
3 Zika Re-emerges
3.1 Zika Surfaces
3.2 Zika and Humans
3.3 Zika in Brazil
3.4 Zikv in the USA
3.4.1 Zika Everywhere (Travel-Related Reports)
3.4.2 Zika Spread (Where Mosquitoes Rule)
3.4.3 California
3.4.4 Florida
3.4.5 Texas
3.4.6 Puerto Rico and U.S. Territories
3.5 International Footprint
3.5.1 Cuba
3.5.2 Mexico
3.5.3 South America and the Caribbean
3.5.4 Asia
3.5.5 Australia
3.5.6 Northeast Asia
3.6 Women More Vulnerable
3.7 Conclusion
References
4 ZIKV Ebbs
4.1 Tracking ZIKV
4.2 Transmission Challenges
4.3 Underreporting
4.4 Anomalies
4.5 Africa
4.6 Strains
4.7 Immunity
4.8 Underreporting Again
4.9 ZIKA Falls off the Charts
4.10 Is ZIKV Gone?
4.11 ZIKA in the 2000s
4.12 India
4.13 Other At-Risk Populations
4.14 Is ZIKA Still With Us?
4.15 Conclusion
References
5 Convergence
5.1 Drivers
5.2 Travel and Trade
5.3 Poverty and Subsidence Living
5.4 Human Population Density and Mosquito Habitat Loss
5.4.1 Biodiversity
5.4.2 Deforestation
5.4.3 Land Use
5.5 Non-degradable Containers
5.6 Climate Change
5.6.1 Complex Feedbacks
5.6.2 The Climate Variables
5.6.3 Variable Interaction
5.7 Some Additional Concerns
5.7.1 Climate-Instigated Variables
5.7.2 The Human Factor
5.8 Conclusion
References
6 Transmission
6.1 Transmission: Mosquito to Larva
6.2 Transmission: Mosquito to Mosquito
6.3 Transmission: Mosquito to Human (Autochthonous) and Human to Mosquito
6.4 Transmission: Sexually Transmitted Zika
6.5 Transmission: Vertical (Mother to Child)
6.6 Transmission: Blood Transfusion
6.7 Transmission: Organ Transplantation
6.8 Transmission Laboratory Exposure
6.9 Transmission: Tears
6.10 Transmission: Breast Milk
6.11 Transmission: Fertility Treatments
6.12 Transmission: An Anomaly
6.13 Conclusion
References
7 Effects on Children: Part 1
7.1 CZS or ZCS Surfaces
7.2 General Implications
7.3 The Microcephaly Story
7.4 Trimester Distinctions
7.5 Symptoms
7.6 Long-Term Effects on Children
7.7 Long-Term Effects on Mothers
7.8 Epidemiological Mystery
7.9 Brazil and Microcephaly Cases
7.10 Colombia and Microcephaly Cases
7.11 What Happened?
7.12 Diagnostic Baselines
7.13 Three Theories
7.14 The Bock Theory
7.15 Fewer Pregnancies and More Abortions
7.16 Multicausal Cofactor Theory
7.16.1 Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus
7.16.2 Chikungunya
7.16.3 Dengue
7.17 Other Causes Altogether
7.18 Yellow Fever Vaccinations
7.19 Socioeconomic Issues
7.20 Conclusion
References
8 Effects on Children, Part 2
8.1 The Consensus—ZIKV Is Linked to Microcephaly
8.1.1 The CDC and the WHO
8.1.2 Current Point of View
8.1.3 Some Studies
8.1.4 Follow-Up Needed
8.1.5 Toddlers
8.1.6 Later in Life
8.2 What Seems to Be Happening?
8.3 Some Theories and the Placenta
8.3.1 The Neural Stem Cell Story
8.3.2 Blood Supply Story
8.3.3 The Interferon Story
8.3.4 The AXL Story
8.3.5 The ANKLE2 Story
8.3.6 The KINESIN-5 Story
8.4 Other ZIKV-Related Implications for Children
8.4.1 Miscarriages and Stillbirths (Fetal Demise)
8.4.2 Blindness (Likely Associated with Microcephaly)
8.4.3 Myelin Damage
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Effects on Adults
9.1 Research Findings
9.1.1 Guillain-Barré Syndrome
9.1.2 Male Infertility
9.1.3 Epilepsy
9.1.4 Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM)
9.1.5 Encephalitis
9.1.6 Other Inflammatory Diseases
9.2 Comorbidity Considerations
9.3 Social Poverty
9.4 Conclusions
References
10 Vectors and Reservoirs
10.1 Primary Vector
10.2 How Do We Know?
10.2.1 Debates Over Aegypti
10.2.2 Debates Over Albopictus
10.2.3 Debates Over Aegypti and Albopictus
10.2.4 Debates Over Interspecific Mating Between Aegypti and Albopictus
10.2.5 Debates Over Culex
10.3 Debates Over Reducing Vector Densities
10.3.1 Benefits from Mosquitoes
10.3.2 Consequences of Eradicating Ae. aegypti
10.3.3 Minimal Impacts
10.3.4 Ethics
10.4 Debates Over Reservoir Hosts
10.4.1 Birds: Bulbuls
10.4.2 Bats
10.4.3 Primates
10.4.4 Humans
10.5 Debates Over Jurisdiction
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Diagnoses, Treatments, Vaccines
11.1 Research
11.2 Diagnosis
11.2.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
11.2.2 Blood Tests
11.2.3 Urine Tests
11.2.4 Saliva Tests
11.2.5 Quick Tests
11.3 Treatments
11.4 Vaccines
11.4.1 Vaccine Markets
11.4.2 Vaccine Developments for Pregnant Women
11.4.3 Vaccine Animal Trials
11.4.4 Vaccine Human Trials
11.4.5 Vaccine Concerns
11.4.6 Vaccines Canceled
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Twentieth-Century Vector Control
12.1 Direct Preventative Approaches
12.1.1 Light Traps
12.1.2 Chemical Approaches
12.1.3 Some Unique Approaches
12.2 Indirect Preventative Approaches
12.2.1 Individual Scale Efforts
12.2.2 Ecosystem Efforts
12.3 Conclusion
References
13 Wolbachia
13.1 Two Companies
13.1.1 Eliminate Dengue (World Mosquito Program)
13.1.2 Mosquito Mate
13.2 Claims
13.2.1 World Mosquito Program (Formerly Eliminate Dengue)
13.2.2 Mosquitomate
13.3 State of the Wolbachia Option
13.4 Public Support
13.5 Controversies
13.6 Test Locations and Trials
13.6.1 World Mosquito Program (Formerly Eliminate Dengue)
13.6.2 Mosquitomate
13.7 Disposition: Successes and Concerns
13.7.1 General Feasibility
13.7.2 Separating Males from Females
13.7.3 Heat Stress
13.7.4 Under-Regulated
13.7.5 Environmental Complications
13.7.6 Genetic Diversity
13.7.7 Irreversibility
13.7.8 Bacterial Pathogen
13.7.9 West Nile Virus, River Blindness, Elephantiasis
13.7.10 Human Male Sterility
13.8 Conclusion
References
14 Oxitec
14.1 Introducing Oxitec
14.1.1 Claims of Success
14.1.2 Testing and Approval
14.1.3 Oxitec and the FDA’S Center for Veterinary Medicine
14.1.4 Disposition: Successes and Concerns
14.1.5 Test Location: Key Haven, Florida (Raccoon Key)
14.1.6 Controversy Across Florida
14.1.7 Controversy Across the U.S.
14.1.8 Federal Government to the Rescue
14.1.9 Evans and Powell Article
14.1.10 Back to Florida
14.2 State of the Oxitec Option and Oxitec 2.0
14.3 Conclusion
References
15 Gene Drives
15.1 Synthetic Biology
15.1.1 CRISPR
15.1.2 CRISPR and the DOD
15.2 Gene Drives Are Here
15.3 Gene Drives and Malaria
15.4 Gene Drives and Mosquitoes
15.4.1 A ZIKV-Resistant Mosquito
15.4.2 Underdeveloped and Weakened Females
15.4.3 Sterilized Males
15.4.4 Hermaphrodites
15.4.5 Sexual Biasing
15.4.6 Hardening Eggshells [11]
15.4.7 Invisibility Cloak
15.5 Gene Drives Debates
15.5.1 Reservations on CRISPR
15.5.2 Fears and Reservations
15.5.3 Public Understanding of Gene Drives
15.6 Conclusion
References
16 Travel and Pregnancy Warnings
16.1 CDC Travel Warning
16.2 CDC/Who Birth Control Advice
16.3 Special Amplifiers
16.3.1 Summer Olympics
16.3.2 Undocumented Immigrants
16.4 Warnings
16.4.1 Travel Restrictions
16.4.2 Travel and Pregnancy Warning Poster
16.5 Effectiveness of the Warnings
16.5.1 Travel
16.5.2 Pregnancy Recommendation
16.5.3 United States
16.5.4 Brazil
16.5.5 Puerto Rico
16.6 Abortion
16.6.1 Testing and Abortions: In Florida
16.6.2 Abortions: Latin America
16.7 Post-epidemic Warnings
16.8 Conclusion
References
17 Communicating Pandemic Risks
17.1 Pandemic Communication
17.1.1 Rhetoric of Warfighting
17.1.2 Panic
17.2 The Communicators
17.2.1 US Regulators
17.2.2 International Entities
17.3 The Themes
17.3.1 Poor Persons of Color Disease?
17.3.2 Women’s Disease?
17.4 Approaches
17.4.1 Social Amplification of Risk Framework
17.4.2 Branding
17.4.3 Framing
17.4.4 Risk Fatigue
17.5 Research on Controlling the Messaging
17.6 Amplification Stations
17.6.1 Government Officials
17.6.2 Other Interest Groups
17.7 Digital Amplification
17.7.1 Digital Amplification of ZIKV and Microcephaly
17.7.2 Digital Amplification of GM Mosquitoes
17.7.3 Fake News
17.8 Public Understanding of Messaging
17.9 Post Epidemic Warnings
17.10 Conclusion
References
18 Pandemic Engagement
18.1 Experts
18.2 Design
18.3 Stakeholders
18.4 Outreach
18.5 Rationale
18.6 Justification
18.7 Typologies
18.8 Challenges
18.9 The Stages
18.10 Stage One: The Field Test
18.11 Stage Two: The Initial Deployment
18.12 Stage Three: The Ramp-Up Deployment
18.13 Stage Four: The Long-Term Association
18.14 Vector Control
18.15 Review of Some Engagement Activities
18.16 Conclusion
References
19 Learning from ZIKV
19.1 Public Health Strategies
19.2 Rift Valley Fever
19.3 Disease X
19.4 Review of a An Approach
19.5 What Should We Have Learned?
19.5.1 Lesson One: How May We Reduce the Development Driver?
19.5.2 Lesson Two: How May We Reduce Uncertainty?
19.5.3 Lesson Three: How May We Adopt Viable Vector Control Approaches?
19.5.4 Lesson Four: How May We Be More Resilient and Responsive?
19.5.5 Lesson Five: How May We Productively Engage in Animal Studies?
19.6 Thoughts on Surveillance
19.6.1 Anticipatory Surveillance
19.6.2 Internet/Digital Bio-Surveillance
19.7 Thoughts on Preparedness
19.7.1 The Global Virome Project (GVP)
19.7.2 One Health
19.8 Mosquito Alert and Citizen Science
19.8.1 Mosquito Alert
19.8.2 Mosquito Stoppers
19.9 Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Framework
19.9.1 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
19.9.2 Integrated Pest and Vector Management (IPvM)
19.10 Conclusion
19.11 Closing Remarks
References
