Optics Experiments and Demonstrations for Student Laboratories: Principles, methods and applications

PRELIMS.pdf
Preface
Acknowledgements
Author biography
Stephen G Lipson
CH001.pdf
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 What is the purpose of this book, and for whom it is intended
1.2 Basic equipment: hardware, light sources, lenses, mirrors, windows, filters, cameras etc
1.2.1 Standard equipment
1.2.2 Common procedures: alignment of components, cleaning optics, spatial filtering a laser beam, calibrating a camera or detector
1.2.3 Laser safety
CH002.pdf
Chapter 2 Geometrical optics
2.1 Prism spectrometer and glass dispersion
2.1.1 Calibration
2.1.2 Spectral resolution
2.2 Critical angle of reflection and Abbe refractometer: measurement of refractive index of a fluid
2.2.1 A classroom demonstration of critical reflection at the air–glass interface
2.2.2 The Abbe refractometer
2.2.3 Using the refractometer to measure the refractive index of a glass plate
2.2.4 A lab experiment
2.3 Paraxial imaging by singlet lenses: thin lens imaging, Newton’s law, depth of field, Scheimpflug construction
2.3.1 Determination of the focal length of a single converging lens
2.3.2 The focal length of a thin diverging lens
2.3.3 The Scheimpflug construction
2.3.4 Commonly encountered problems
2.4 Compound and thick lenses: focal, principal and nodal planes, zoom lenses
2.4.1 Cardinal points and planes of a compound or thick lens
2.4.2 Telephoto combination
2.4.3 Determining the focal planes and effective focal length
2.4.4 Nodal points
2.4.5 Telecentric lens combination
2.5 Telescopes: refractor telescopes, Newton reflector telescope and periscope
2.5.1 The concepts of stops and pupils
2.5.2 Refractor telescope
2.5.3 Field of view
2.5.4 Terrestrial telescope
2.5.5 Galilean telescope
2.5.6 Newtonian reflector telescope
2.5.7 Periscope
2.5.8 Compound eyepiece
2.6 Microscopes: transmission, reflection, dark field
2.6.1 Construction
2.6.2 Magnification
2.6.3 Numerical aperture
2.6.4 Depth of focus
2.6.5 Dark-ground imaging
2.6.6 Reflection microscope
2.6.7 Polarization and phase microscopy
2.7 Autocollimator: measuring focal planes of a lens and angle of rotation
2.8 Aberrations and their reduction: some basic concepts, use of stops
2.8.1 Chromatic aberration
2.8.2 Spherical aberration
2.8.3 Off-axis aberrations
2.8.4 Distortion
2.9 Gravitational lens analogy: an example of an aspherical lens
2.9.1 Gravitational lensing
2.9.2 Properties of an analogue gravitational lens
2.9.3 A laboratory gravitational lens
References
CH003.pdf
Chapter 3 Polarization and scattering
3.1 Polarized light
3.1.1 Ordinary and extraordinary light rays in crystals
3.1.2 Types of polarized light
3.1.3 Creation of polarized light
3.1.4 Characterizing the polarizers
3.2 Fresnel coefficients for reflection at an interface
3.2.1 Fresnel coefficients
3.2.2 Measuring the Fresnel coefficients
3.2.3 Incidence within the medium
3.2.4 Using total internal reflection to create circularly-polarized polychromatic light: Fresnel Rhomb
3.3 Ellipsometry: using polarized light to measure properties of thin films
3.3.1 The basic ellipsometer layout
3.3.2 Samples
3.3.3 Measurement method
3.3.4 Appendix 1: Derivation of the multiple reflection amplitude
3.3.5 Appendix 2: Derivation of the null angles
3.4 Rayleigh scattering
3.4.1 Scattering of polarized light, photographic applications
3.4.2 Wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering
3.5 Coherent back-scattering
3.5.1 Localization of light by non-absorbing random materials
3.5.2 Experiments
References
CH004.pdf
Chapter 4 Physical optics I: diffraction and imaging
4.1 Fraunhofer (far-field) diffraction and Fourier transforms
4.1.1 Optical setup
4.1.2 Construction of diffraction objects
4.1.3 15 ideas for significant diffraction objects
4.1.4 Comparison with calculated Fourier transforms
4.2 Fresnel (near-field) diffraction
4.2.1 Objects with axial symmetry
4.2.2 Linear objects: knife edge and slits
4.2.3 Fresnel diffraction by a one-dimensional periodic object: Talbot re-imaging effect
4.2.4 Radial star target
4.3 Diffraction gratings: transmission and reflection gratings and spectroscopy
4.3.1 Square wave grating
4.3.2 Blazed gratings
4.3.3 Spectroscopy
4.3.4 Monochromator
4.4 Imaging with coherent illumination
4.4.1 Coherent imaging experimental setups
4.4.2 Resolution limit
4.4.3 Passive resolution improvement
4.4.4 Spatial Filtering in the Fourier plane33The concept of ‘Spatial Filter’ here must be distinguished from the spatial filter used to clean up and expand the laser beam before it illuminates the object, as in section 1.2.2 and figures 4.25 and 4.26, although the principle is the same.
4.4.5 Demonstrating spatial filtering
4.5 Optical transfer function: incoherent resolution measurement
4.5.1 Measuring the OTF using a resolution target
4.5.2 Random target method
4.5.3 Using the line and point spread functions
4.5.4 An OTF lab bench experiment
4.6 Diffraction by three-dimensional objects: analogues of crystallography
4.6.1 Diffraction by a pair of parallel diffraction gratings: banded spectrum
4.6.2 Carrying out the experiment
4.6.3 Interpretation in terms of crystal diffraction theory: the Ewald sphere
4.6.4 Interpretation using the Talbot effect
4.7 High resolution, wide field Fourier ptychographic microscopy
References
CH005.pdf
Chapter 5 Physical optics II: interference
5.1 Newton’s rings and flat plate interference
5.1.1 Experimental setup
5.1.2 Newton’s rings
5.1.3 Wedge interference
5.2 Michelson and Twyman–Green interferometers: absolute measurement of wavelength, Fourier spectroscopy and optical testing
5.2.1 Michelson’s interferometer
5.2.2 Fringe types in interferometers
5.2.3 Measuring the wavelength
5.2.4 White-light fringes and spectroscopy
5.2.5 Fourier spectroscopy
5.2.6 Optical testing—the Twyman–Green interferometer
5.2.7 Interpreting interferograms quantitatively
5.3 Sagnac common-path interferometer
5.3.1 Aligning the interferometer
5.3.2 Sagnac interferometer in a stationary frame of reference
5.3.3 Fourier spectroscopy with a Sagnac interferometer
5.3.4 Optical testing using the Sagnac interferometer
5.4 Fabry–Perot étalon
5.4.1 Laboratory model
5.4.2 Interference pattern
5.4.3 Measuring the thickness of the étalon
5.4.4 Applications
5.5 Holography with a digital camera
5.5.1 Experiments
5.5.2 Off-line (or side-band) holography
5.5.3 Reconstruction algorithm
5.5.4 Experimental aims
5.5.5 In-line holography
5.5.6 Appendix. Derivation of the reconstruction procedure in the Fresnel (small angle) approximation
5.6 Interferometric holography
5.6.1 Double exposure holographic interferometry
5.6.2 Time exposure holography
5.6.3 A comment on holographic interferometry from the point of view of wave–particle duality
5.7 Computer-generated holography
5.7.1 Reconstruction
5.7.2 Three-dimensional object
References
CH006.pdf
Chapter 6 Physical optics III: topics in wave propagation
6.1 Optical tunnelling: frustrated total internal reflection
6.1.1 Theory of optical tunnelling
6.1.2 Visualizing tunnelling in a Newton’s rings configuration
6.1.3 Interpreting the results
6.1.4 Direct measurement of the tunnelling probability
6.2 The acousto-optic effect
6.2.1 Experiments in the Raman–Nath regime
6.2.2 Experimental suggestions
6.3 Berry’s geometric phase
6.3.1 Berry’s phase in an optical fibre
6.4 Spatial coherence function: measurement and interpretation
6.4.1 Measuring the spatial coherence function using Young’s fringes
6.4.2 Measuring the spatial coherence function using a shearing interferometer
6.5 Aperture synthesis
6.5.1 A laboratory aperture synthesis experiment
6.6 Gouy phase shift through a focus
6.6.1 Experimental setup
6.6.2 Two questions for investigation
6.7 Optical vortices
6.7.1 Interference patterns
6.7.2 Creating vortex waves
References
CH007.pdf
Chapter 7 Optics of materials
7.1 Interferometric measurement of the refractive index of a gas
7.2 Anisotropic materials: interference figures of uniaxial and biaxial crystals
7.2.1 Basic description of birefringent crystals in terms of the refractive index surface
7.2.2 Uniaxial and biaxial crystals
7.3 Chiral materials: optical activity
7.4 Non-linear optics: second harmonic generation
7.4.1 Phase matching
7.4.2 The experiment
7.5 Surface plasmon resonance
7.5.1 Observing the plasmons
7.5.2 Experiments using the Kretschmann configuration
7.5.3 Experiments using the Otto configuration
7.6 Induced optical anisotropy: photo-elastic, electro-optic and magneto-optic effects
7.6.1 Photoelastic effect
7.6.2 Electro-optic effect
7.6.3 Magneto-optic effect
References
CH008.pdf
Chapter 8 Atmospheric optics
8.1 Rainbow: geometrical and physical optical effects, high-order rainbows
8.1.1 The geometrical optical theory of the rainbow
8.1.2 Experiments
8.2 Mirages and gradient-index optics
8.2.1 Basic theory of ray paths
8.2.2 Laboratory experiments
8.2.3 Appendix
8.3 Green flash
8.3.1 Physical origin of the green flash
8.3.2 A laboratory experiment
8.4 Sky polarization, the sunstone and Viking navigation
8.4.1 How the Vikings used a birefringent crystal for navigation
8.4.2 A Sunstone in the laboratory and the open air
References
CH009.pdf
Chapter 9 Relativistic optics
9.1 Fizeau’s experiment: velocity of light in moving water
9.2 Optical fibre gyroscope: measurement of rate of rotation
9.2.1 Sagnac interferometer in a rotating frame of reference: optical gyroscope
9.2.2 Fibre-optical gyroscope
References
CH010.pdf
Chapter 10 Basic experiments in quantum optics
10.1 Coincidence experiments
10.2 Measuring the Planck constant
10.3 Laser modes
10.4 The spectrum of black-body radiation
References