Oceanography of the Mediterranean Sea: An Introductory Guide

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Oceanography of the Mediterranean Sea
Oceanography of the Mediterranean SeaAn Introductory GuideEdited byKatrin SchroederConsiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-Istit ...
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
1 - Introduction
1.1 The Mediterranean Sea, a “miniature ocean”
1.2 Book structure and contents
1.3 Learning objectives at a glance
References
2 - Mediterranean Sea evolution and present-day physiography
2.1 Origin of the Mediterranean Sea
2.1.1 Kinematic and geodynamical overview
2.1.2 Messinian salinity crisis: an extraordinary event
2.2 Dimensions and seafloor topography
2.3 Sedimentation on continental margins
2.3.1 Tectonic movements and sedimentation
2.3.2 Climate and sedimentation
2.4 Concluding remarks
References
3 - Mediterranean climate: past, present and future
3.1 General climate and morphological characteristics of the Mediterranean basin
3.2 Instrumental observations, satellites, and reanalyses
3.3 Climate models and their evolution
3.3.1 Components of climate models and model hierarchy
3.3.2 Climate modeling international programs
3.4 Heat and moisture balance at Mediterranean regional scale and relation to surface climate
3.4.1 Heat budget
3.4.2 Moisture budget
3.5 The atmospheric circulation of the subtropics and mid-latitudes
3.5.1 The Mediterranean basin as a transitional region
3.5.2 The Mediterranean storm track
3.5.3 Remote factors affecting the Mediterranean climate
3.6 Evolution of Mediterranean climate
3.6.1 Astronomical forcing
3.6.2 The formation of the Mediterranean and geophysical forcing of Mediterranean climate
3.6.3 The last million years: the glacial cycles
3.6.4 The last millennia: the historical period
3.6.5 Anthropogenic climate change
References
4 - The forcings of the Mediterranean Sea and the physical properties of its water masses
4.1 The forcings of the Mediterranean Sea
4.1.1 Exchanges through the strait of Gibraltar
4.1.2 Climatological mean surface flux fields
4.1.2.1 Wind stress
4.1.2.2 Heat flux
4.1.2.3 Freshwater flux
4.1.3 Temporal variability
4.2 The thermohaline properties of the Mediterranean water masses
4.2.1 Water masses, water types, and their representation
4.2.2 Water mass analysis and the interpretation of the TS diagram
4.2.3 Water mass properties and distribution in the Mediterranean Sea
4.2.3.1 Atlantic water
4.2.3.2 Intermediate water
4.2.3.3 Deep water
4.3 Other water mass tracers
References
5 - Mediterranean Sea level
5.1 General concepts about sea level
5.2 Techniques for measuring sea level
5.2.1 Tide gauges
5.2.2 Satellite altimetry
5.2.3 Sea level proxies
5.2.4 Supplementary techniques for understanding sea level changes
5.3 Past evolution of Mediterranean Sea level
5.3.1 Holocene sea-level changes and the role of isostatic-related subsidence
5.3.2 Decadal to centennial sea level trends since the late 19th century
5.4 Future projections of Mediterranean Sea level
References
6 - Surface wave and sea surface dynamics in the Mediterranean
6.1 General concepts about waves, definitions and phenomenology
6.2 Tides and seiches
6.2.1 Generalities and basic definitions
6.2.2 Tides in the Mediterranean Sea
6.3 Marine storms and coastal floods in the Mediterranean Sea
6.3.1 Storm surges
6.3.2 Planetary scale forcing of storm surges
6.3.3 Synoptic scale forcing of storm surges
6.3.4 Mesoscale forcing of storm surges
6.3.5 Prediction of storm surges
6.3.6 Coastal floods in future climates
6.4 Wind generated waves
6.4.1 Generalities and basic definitions
6.4.2 Wind and waves regimes in the Mediterranean Sea
6.4.3 Waves forecasts in the Mediterranean Sea
6.4.4 Past and future evolution of wind-generated waves
6.5 Tsunamis
6.5.1 Historical events in the Mediterranean Sea
6.5.2 Source, propagation and tsunami models
6.5.3 Meteotsunamis
6.5.4 Early warning systems
References
7 - Dense and deep water formation processes and Mediterranean overturning circulation
7.1 General concepts
7.2 Dense/deep water characteristics and formation rates
7.3 Observations of deep/dense water formation in the Mediterranean Sea
7.3.1 Convection and deep water formation in the Gulf of Lion: five decades of observations
7.3.2 Deep water formation in the eastern Mediterranean
7.3.2.1 The Adriatic Sea as a main contributor to Eastern Mediterranean deep waters
7.3.2.2 The Aegean Sea as an intermittent deep water source to the eastern Mediterranean
7.3.3 Formation of intermediate water masses
7.3.3.1 Levantine intermediate water
7.3.3.2 Cretan intermediate water
7.3.3.3 Western intermediate water
7.3.3.4 Tyrrhenian intermediate water
7.3.4 Dense shelf water formation and cascading
7.3.4.1 Gulf of Lion
7.3.4.2 Adriatic Sea
7.4 Theory of dense/deep water formation processes: general concepts
7.4.1 Theory of dense/deep water formation in the open ocean
7.4.2 Dense water formation on the shelf and their cascading into the deep ocean
7.5 Numerical modeling of deep/dense water formation
7.5.1 Dense/deep water formation numerical modeling in the open ocean
7.5.2 Dense/deep water cascading numerical modeling
7.6 The Mediterranean overturning circulation: structure and dynamics
7.6.1 Zonal overturning
7.6.2 Western Mediterranean overturning
7.6.3 Eastern Mediterranean overturning
7.6.4 Comparison of the Mediterranean with the North Atlantic overturning
7.7 Concluding remarks
References
8 - Fronts, eddies and mesoscale circulation in the Mediterranean Sea
8.1 General concepts
8.2 Mediterranean Sea mesoscale variability derived from satellite altimetry
8.2.1 Mediterranean sea field dependency on the satellite constellation
8.2.2 Quantifying spatial and temporal variability
8.3 Eddies, fronts and vertical velocity
8.3.1 Vertical velocity and fronts in the Mediterranean Sea
8.3.2 Eddy detection, tracking and characterisation
8.4 Future perspectives
References
9 - Recent changes in the Mediterranean Sea
9.1 General concepts about Mediterranean water masses and their circulation
9.2 Changes observed in the Eastern Mediterranean water masses
9.2.1 Formation of dense waters and the Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT)
9.2.2 Decadal oscillations of the upper thermohaline circulation in the EMED
9.2.3 Post-EMT status in the EMED
9.3 Changes observed in the Western Mediterranean water masses
9.3.1 The twentieth century: gradual warming and salinification
9.3.2 Changes during the 21st century: the Western Mediterranean Transition (WMT)
9.4 Long-term trends and climate change
9.5 Impact on the Mediterranean-Atlantic system
9.5.1 Mediterranean outflow water (MOW)
9.5.2 Following the MOW signal: from the strait of Gibraltar to the North Atlantic
9.5.3 MOW trends and variability
References
10 - Mediterranean observing and forecasting systems
10.1 The emergence of operational oceanography in the Mediterranean Sea
10.2 The framework for ocean observing and the essential ocean variables
10.3 Observing systems operating in the Mediterranean Sea
10.3.1 Satellites
10.3.2 In-situ and land-based remote sensing observations: systems and international coordination programs
10.3.2.1 Research vessels
10.3.2.2 Moorings
10.3.2.3 Tide gauges and coastal stations
10.3.2.4 Drifters
10.3.2.5 Profiling floats
10.3.2.6 Gliders
10.3.2.7 HF radars
10.3.2.8 FerryBox
10.3.2.9 Animal tagging
10.3.2.10 EuroGOOS and MONGOOS
10.3.3 Multi-platform regional and coastal observing systems
10.3.3.1 MOOSE
10.3.3.2 SOCIB
10.3.3.3 POSEIDON
10.3.3.4 Other sustained multi-platform observing systems and intensive surveys
10.4 Forecasting the Mediterranean Sea
10.4.1 General concepts
10.4.1.1 Hydrodynamics
10.4.1.2 Storm surges and meteotsunamis
10.4.1.3 Wind waves
10.4.1.4 Biogeochemistry
10.4.1.5 Data assimilation as a tool to integrate models and observations
10.4.1.6 Reaching coastal scales
10.4.1.7 Coupling hydrodynamics, wave, hydrology, and atmospheric components
10.4.2 Illustration of some of the Mediterranean regional ocean prediction systems
10.4.2.1 Copernicus marine environment monitoring service
10.4.2.2 SOCIB
10.4.2.3 Poseidon
10.4.2.4 Other prediction systems
10.5 Data management and distribution
10.6 Concluding remarks
References
11 - Mediterranean Sea general biogeochemistry
11.1 Dissolved oxygen distribution and ventilation
11.1.1 Introduction
11.1.2 Measurements of oxygen and models contribution
11.1.3 Dissolved oxygen distribution in the Mediterranean Sea
11.1.4 Ventilation mechanisms
11.1.5 Long term trends: in situ observation and model contribution
11.2 Dissolved nutrients: forms, sources, distribution, and dynamics
11.2.1 Introduction
11.2.2 Nutrient forms and sources
11.2.3 Nutrients distribution
11.2.4 Impact of the circulation on nutrients and biological dynamics
11.2.5 Anomalous N:P ratio
11.2.6 The anthropogenic impact
11.3 Dissolved organic matter: relevance, distribution, and dynamics
11.3.1 Introduction, definitions, and relevance
11.3.2 DOC distribution in the Mediterranean Sea, a basin scale view
11.3.2.1 Surface layer
11.3.2.2 Seasonal variability
11.3.2.3 Intermediate layer
11.3.2.4 Deep layer
11.3.3 Properties of Mediterranean DOM
11.3.3.1 Optical properties
11.3.3.2 Molecular composition
11.3.4 External sources of DOM
11.3.4.1 River run-off
11.3.4.2 Atmospheric input
11.4 Inorganic carbon chemistry and acidification in the Mediterranean Sea: concepts, particularities, and distribution
11.4.1 General definitions and current challenges of the seawater CO2 system
11.4.2 General processes affecting the CO2 system with a Mediterranean overview
11.4.3 Particularities and distribution of the CO2 system in the Mediterranean Sea
11.4.4 Surface pCO2 and air-sea CO2 fluxes
11.4.5 Anthropogenic carbon and ocean acidification in the Mediterranean Sea
11.4.6 Current biogeochemical monitoring activities with focus on CO2 variables in the Mediterranean Sea
11.5 Identifying Mediterranean Sea water masses using biogeochemistry
11.6 Future projections and threats to Mediterranean biogeochemistry
11.6.1 Climate change and its impact on the oceans' biogeochemistry and Mediterranean peculiarities
11.6.2 Expected changes of biogeochemical conditions in the Mediterranean Sea
11.6.3 Regional differences on the effect of climate change in the various Mediterranean subbasins
References
12 - Active geological processes in the Mediterranean Sea
12.1 General concepts
12.2 Sedimentary processes from the coast to the deep sea
12.2.1 Coastal environments
12.2.2 Deep-water environments
12.2.2.1 Submarine landslides
12.2.2.2 Turbidity currents
12.2.2.3 Near seafloor currents and contourites
12.2.2.4 Sedimentation related to dense-shelf water cascading and open-ocean convection
12.3 Submarine and insular volcanoes
12.4 Cold seeps: diversity, distribution and controls
12.4.1 Key-points on submarine cold seeps
12.4.2 Diversity of widespread cold seeps
12.4.3 Mud volcanoes
12.4.4 Pockmarks
12.4.5 Methane-derived authigenic carbonate structures
12.4.6 Brine seeps
12.4.7 Gas hydrates
12.4.8 Processes controlling the formation of gas and its migration
12.5 Geohazards and ecosystems
12.5.1 Geohazards
12.5.2 Ecosystems
References
13 - The Mediterranean Sea in the Anthropocene
13.1 General concepts
13.2 Reduction of seafloor integrity
13.2.1 Trawling
13.2.2 Ghost fishing
13.2.3 Littering and dumping
13.2.4 Direct seafloor modifications
13.2.5 Ammunitions on the seafloor
13.3 Modification of coastal lithosomes
13.3.1 Deltas
13.3.2 Prodeltas
13.3.3 Lagoons
13.3.4 Ebb and flood tidal deltas
13.3.5 Drowned coastal barrier islands use as borrow places to extract sands
13.4 Man-made alterations of the Mediterranean hydrological cycle
13.5 The load of human activities in changing Mediterranean biogeochemical dynamics
13.6 Dynamic of pollutants in the Mediterranean Sea
13.6.1 The European directives (WFD and MSFD)
13.6.2 The biogeochemistry of contaminants: geomorphological interferences
13.6.3 Heavy metals in seawater, sediments, and organisms
13.6.4 Organic pollutants in seawater, sediments, and organisms
13.6.5 Emerging pollutants: pharmaceutical products, drugs, etc.
13.7 Plastisphere in the Mediterranean Sea
13.8 Concluding remarks
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
W
Z
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