New Forms of Urban Agriculture: An Urban Ecology Perspective

Acknowledgements
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1: Introduction: New Forms of Urban Agriculture Embedded in Urban Resources-Where Is the Evidence?
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Origin of the Book
1.3 Purpose of the Book
1.4 Structure of the Book
1.4.1 Land
1.4.2 Water/Waste
1.4.3 Labor
1.4.4 Biodiversity
References
Part I: Land
2: Managing Land: Protecting, Integrating, and Allocating Agriculture in Urban Design and Planning-The Case of Luxembourg
2.1 Rethinking Urban Design and Planning with Suitability Measures
2.2 Methodological Approach
2.2.1 The Luxembourg Context: Agricultural and Urban Development
Box 2.1 Crop Production
2.2.2 Agricultural Land-Use Suitability Using GIS and the AHP Technique
2.2.2.1 The Analytical Hierarchy Process Method
2.2.2.2 Criteria, Data Sets, and Methodology Used in the Land Suitability Analysis
Box 2.2 Criteria (See Fig. 2.4a-e and Table 2.5)
2.2.2.3 Standardisation of Criteria Maps
2.2.2.4 Calculation of Weight for Criteria Maps
2.3 Results and Discussion
2.3.1 The Agricultural Land-Use Suitability Map
2.3.1.1 Distribution of Agricultural Land Suitability Analysis
2.3.1.2 Agro-Urban Potentials
2.3.2 How Can Land Suitability Contribute to Urban Design and Planning Processes?
2.4 Conclusion
References
3: Mitigation of Urbanization Ill-Effects Through Urban Agriculture Inclusion in Cities
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Urban vs. Rural Areas
3.3 Urban Heat Island (UHI) and Heat Stress
3.4 The Growing Importance of UA and Its Challenges
3.4.1 What Is UA?
3.4.2 Benefits of UA: Food Production, Ecosystem Services, and Thermal Comfort
3.4.3 Inclusion of UA into City LULC
3.5 UA Scenario in the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi
3.5.1 Urbanization, Population Explosion, and Shrinking Agricultural Lands
3.5.2 Current Status of UA Opportunities and Future Outlook
3.5.2.1 Food Based UA Systems
3.5.2.2 Non-food Based UA Systems
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: Commercial Potential for Rooftop Farming in a Major City in China
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Study Area
4.3 Rooftop Hydroponics in a Screen House
4.4 Feasibility of Commercial Rooftop Farming
4.4.1 Cost Effective Rooftop Farming
4.4.2 Quality of Rooftop Vegetables: Biosafety and Nutrition
4.4.3 Bi-layer Production
4.4.4 Quality of Top and Bottom Layer Grown Vegetables: Visual and Taste
4.5 Conclusion and Perspective
References
5: Land Use Models, Drivers, Institutional Arrangements, and Major Discourses in Promotion of Urban Agriculture in India
5.1 Urbanization and Urban Agriculture
5.2 Scenario Analysis Framework
5.2.1 Discourse Analysis
5.2.2 Semi-structured Interviews
5.2.3 Data Analysis
5.3 Results
5.3.1 Land Use Models in UA
5.3.2 Land Use Policy, Tenure, and UA
5.3.3 Land Renting and Lease Models
5.3.3.1 Peri-urban Model
5.3.3.2 Indian Railway´s Mumbai Model
5.3.3.3 City Farming Model, Pune City
5.3.3.4 Community Farming Model
5.3.3.5 Rooftop and Terrace Model
5.3.3.6 UA in Home Gardens Model
5.3.3.7 Localized Intensive Land Use Model
5.3.4 Major Drivers of UA in India
5.3.4.1 Promotion by Government Agencies
Case Example of Kerala
Case Example of Hyderabad
Case Example of Chennai and Coimbatore
5.3.4.2 Social Networks for UA
5.3.4.3 Enabling Marketing Arrangements for UA Products
5.3.4.4 Start-Ups in UA
5.4 Discussion
5.5 Conclusion and Suggestions
References
6: Protecting Peri-urban Agriculture: A Perspective from the Pacific Islands
6.1 Introduction: Peri-urban Agriculture in the Pacific-Vanuatu
6.2 Urban Food and Nutrition Security in Port Vila
6.2.1 High Rates of Urbanization
6.2.2 Import Reliance/Nutrition Transition
6.2.3 Limited Access to Local Food
6.2.4 Climate Change
6.2.5 Natural Disasters
6.2.6 Policy Neglect
6.2.7 Lack of Land to Farm
6.3 Challenges to Land Use Planning in the Pacific
6.3.1 Tax
6.3.2 Land Management Planning Committee
6.4 Pressure for Development
6.5 Conclusion: Adopting a Context Specific Approach to Universal Challenges
References
Part II: Water/Waste
7: Engineering Perspective of Water Use for Urban Agriculture
7.1 Characteristics of Water in Global Cities
7.1.1 Water Stress and Sustainable Development
7.1.2 Water Resources
7.1.3 Wastewater as a Resource
7.2 How We Use Water to Produce Food
7.2.1 LCA a Valuable Tool
7.2.2 Using Life Cycle Inventories to Guide Policy Goals
7.3 Spectrum of Urban Agriculture in Practice
7.3.1 Urban Agriculture as a Policy Outcome, or Not
7.3.2 Innovation in Policy and Technology: An Effective Combination
7.3.2.1 The Promise of Controlled-Environment Innovation
7.3.2.2 The Promise of Low-Tech Innovation
7.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
8: Evaluating Wastewater Reuse in Urban Agriculture from a Systems Perspective: Focus on Linkages with Water, Energy, and Heal...
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Advantages of Wastewater Reuse for Urban Agriculture
8.3 Disadvantages of Wastewater Reuse for Urban Agriculture
8.4 Wastewater Treatment Plants for Water Reuse for Urban Agriculture
8.5 Case Study in Hyderabad, India
8.6 System-Wide Energy and Greenhouse Gas Impacts
8.6.1 Untreated Wastewater in Streams
8.6.2 Wastewater Treatment Plant with Effluent Release to Stream
8.6.3 Wastewater Reuse for Urban Agriculture
8.7 Practical Constraints of Treated Wastewater Reuse in Urban Agriculture
8.8 Environmental and Behavioral Causes of Crop Contamination
8.9 Determining Health Risks Associated with Crop Microorganism Content
8.10 Assessment of System-Wide Tradeoffs
8.11 Key Findings and Future Recommendations
References
9: Frontier Agriculture: Climate-Smart and Water-Saving Agriculture Technologies for Livelihoods and Food Security
9.1 Introduction
Box 9.1 Frontier Agriculture
9.2 Frontier Agriculture Technologies
9.2.1 Hydroponics
9.2.2 Types of Hydroponic Systems
9.2.3 Hydroponic and Aquaponic System Inputs
9.2.3.1 Wick Systems
Box 9.2 Wicking Bed Systems in the Palestinian Territories
9.2.3.2 Deep Water Culture
9.2.3.3 Ebb and Flow
9.2.3.4 Drip Method
9.2.3.5 Nutrient Film Technique
9.2.3.6 Aeroponics
Box 9.3 Vertical Farming
9.2.4 Aquaponics
Box 9.4 Aquaponics in the Gaza Strip, Palestinian Territories
9.2.4.1 Types of Crops
9.2.4.2 Nutrient Solution
9.2.4.3 Water
9.2.4.4 Growing Mediums
9.2.4.5 Energy Use
9.2.5 Production
9.2.5.1 Nutrition
9.2.5.2 Pest Management and Plant Survival
9.2.5.3 Cost and Labor
9.2.5.4 Income and Profitability
9.3 Matching Needs of Refugees and Hosts with Frontier Agriculture Technologies
9.4 Conclusion
References
10: Food Security Achieved Through Utilizing Waste Materials in Part of Durban and Rural Surrounds, South Africa
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Applicable Essential Legislation in South Africa
10.3 Nutrition and Health: Food Safety
10.4 Water Security and Garden Irrigation
10.5 Implementing Urban Agriculture Support
10.5.1 Amending the Soil
10.5.2 Containing and Securing Urban Gardens
10.5.3 Pest Control
10.5.4 Nutrition
10.6 Future Development Plans
10.7 Conclusion
References
Part III: Labor
11: Contextualizing Urban Agriculture in Quito, Ecuador: A Look at Urban Production and Producer Traits
11.1 Urban Agriculture and Its Producers: A Case Study
11.2 Researching AGRUPAR
11.3 Findings: Comparing Differences in Urban Agricultural Producers
11.3.1 Migration History
11.3.2 Age
11.3.3 Gender
11.4 Discussion: How Producer Characteristics Influence Urban Agriculture
11.5 Conclusion: The Many Faces of Urban Agriculture
References
12: Blurring the Boundaries: How an Emerging Group of Urban-Integrated Farmers in Singapore Are Changing the Profile of Farm L...
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Overview of the Changing Farming Industry in Singapore
12.3 Agricultural Background
12.3.1 Commercial Farms
12.3.2 Urban-Integrated Farms
12.4 Characteristics of Urban Farm Workers
12.4.1 Education Level and Wages
12.4.1.1 Commercial Farms
12.4.1.2 Urban-Integrated Farms
12.4.2 Motivation
12.4.2.1 Commercial Farms
12.4.2.2 Urban-Integrated Farms
12.4.3 Community Involvement
12.4.3.1 Commercial Farms
12.4.3.2 Urban-Integrated Farms
12.5 Food Crisis and Farm Labour
12.6 Looking to the Future
References
13: Assessing Ecosystem Services and Job Opportunities in Peri-urban Agriculture Start-Up Projects
13.1 Ecosystem Services
13.2 Urban Agriculture and Ecosystem Services
13.3 Urban Agriculture: New Opportunities
13.3.1 Peri-urban Agriculture Case Study
13.3.2 OpenAgri Ecosystem Services and Job Opportunities
13.4 Data Collection
13.5 Pareto Front Algorithm and ES Performance
13.5.1 Air Pollution Removal
13.5.2 Carbon Storage and Sequestration
13.5.3 Oxygen Production
13.6 Trade-Off Analysis
13.6.1 Trade-Offs Analysis Results
13.6.2 Ecosystem Services Evaluation of the Semi-natural Hedgerow Network
13.6.2.1 Air Pollution Removal
13.6.2.2 Carbon Storage and Sequestration
13.6.2.3 Oxygen Production
13.7 Key Findings
13.8 Conclusion
References
14: Field Work: A Mixed-Methods Social Network Analysis of Urban Farmers and Hired Laborers in Four Cities
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Diversity of Agriculture Participants
14.1.2 The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework
14.1.3 Social Network Access to Human Capital
14.2 Methods
14.3 Case Study Delhi, India: Farmers Who Hire Labor but Also Work for Each Other
14.4 Case Study Jakarta, Indonesia: Self-Sufficient Farms
14.5 Case Study Singapore: Farmers Who Depend on Migrant Workers
14.6 Case Study Sydney, Australia: Farm to Farmer´s Market Workers
14.7 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Biodiversity
15: Honey Bees, Wild Bees, and Beekeepers in Chicago´s Community Gardens
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Methods
15.2.1 Study Sites
15.2.2 Bee Surveys
15.2.3 Garden Assessments
15.2.4 Beekeeper Interviews
15.2.5 Analysis
15.3 Combined Results and Discussion
15.3.1 How Abundant and Diverse Are Bee Communities in Chicago´s Community Gardens?
15.3.2 What Is the Relationship Between Honey Bee Abundance and Wild Bee Abundance, and What Factors Predict Wild and Honey Be...
15.3.3 Does Urban Beekeeping Provide Any Benefits to Wild Bees?
15.4 Conclusion
References
16: The Rurban Elephant: Behavioural Ecology of Asian Elephants in Response to Large-Scale Land Use Change in a Human-Dominate...
16.1 Changing Landscapes, Shifting Behaviours?
16.2 The Study Landscape and Its Elephants
16.3 Life in an Urbanising Landscape
16.4 Decision-Making in a Dynamic Natural-Anthropogenic Landscape Matrix
16.5 Decision-Making in Novel Human-Dominated Habitats
16.6 Elephants of the Rurban
16.7 The Rurban Male Elephant
16.8 Conclusions: The Synurbised Asian Elephant
References
17: NFUA and Biodiversity: Current State of the Research and Potential Opportunities
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Constraints and Opportunities for Biodiversity in the Context of Urbanization
17.2 Motivations for Biodiversity Conservation in Urban Areas
17.2.1 Providing Environmental Education by Connecting People to Nature
Box 17.1 Yamuna Biodiversity Park, Delhi, India
17.2.2 Preserving Important Local Biodiversity
Box 17.2 The City of Cape Town, South Africa
Box 17.3 Green Roofs on Bus Stops in Utrecht
17.2.3 Understanding How Species Respond to Rapidly Changing Environments
17.2.4 Ecosystem Services
17.3 Urban Agriculture and Biodiversity
17.3.1 Traditional Urban Farming Systems
17.3.1.1 Cultivated Open Spaces-Limited Acreage Urban Farms
Allotment Gardens and Community Gardens
Home Gardens
17.3.1.2 Intensive Horticulture Systems
17.3.1.3 Mono-cropping Systems
17.3.2 New Forms of Urban Agriculture
17.3.2.1 Organoponics
17.3.2.2 Hydroponics
17.3.2.3 Rooftop Gardens
17.4 Conclusion
References
18: The Future of New Forms of Urban Agriculture: A Call for Evidence
18.1 Space RequiredLand and Soil Optional
18.2 Reframing Water Scarcity
18.3 The People Who Grow and Harvest the Crops
18.4 From Pollinators to Pachyderms: NFUA and Urban Habitats
18.5 NFUA: A Call for More Evidence