Neuroinflammation, Gut-Brain Axis and Immunity in Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Preface
Contents
Contributors
Part I: Rethinking and Paradigm Shift
1: Neuron-Microglia Crosstalk in Neuropsychiatric Disorders
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Physiological Roles of Microglia
1.3 Neuron-Microglia Crosstalk in Depression
1.4 Neuron-Microglia Crosstalk in Schizophrenia
1.5 Neuron-Microglia Crosstalk in Neurocognitive Disorder
1.6 Conclusions
References
2: Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis: Pathophysiological Mechanism in Neuropsychiatric Disorders
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis
2.3 Potential Communication Pathways Between Gut Microbiota and the Brain
2.3.1 Immunological Pathway
2.3.2 Microbial Metabolites
2.3.3 Endocrine System
2.3.4 Autonomic Nervous System
2.4 The Role of Gut-Microbiota-Brain Axis in Neuropsychiatric Illnesses
2.4.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder
2.4.2 Schizophrenia
2.4.3 Depression
2.4.4 Alzheimer´s Disease
2.4.5 Parkinson´s Disease
2.5 Modulation of Gut Microbiota for the Treatment of Neuropsychiatric Disorders
2.6 Conclusions
References
3: Inflammation-Mediated Responses in the Development of Neurodegenerative Diseases
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Hallmarks of Neurodegenerative Diseases
3.3 The Role of Inflammation in the Development of Neurodegeneration
3.4 The Role of Neuroinflammation in the Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Diseases
3.4.1 Alzheimer´s Disease
3.4.2 Parkinson´s Disease
3.4.3 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
3.4.4 Multiple Sclerosis
3.5 Model Systems Available to Study Inflammatory-Mediated Neurodegenerative Diseases
3.5.1 Alzheimer´s Disease
3.5.2 Parkinson´s Disease
3.5.3 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
3.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions
References
4: Microbiome-Induced Autoimmunity and Novel Therapeutic Intervention
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Microbiome-Induced Autoimmunity
4.2.1 Microbiome
4.2.2 Maternal Microbiota
4.2.3 Hygiene Hypothesis
4.2.4 Epithelial Barrier Hypothesis and Leaky Gut Syndrome (LGS)
4.2.5 Dysbiosis
4.2.6 The Role of B Cells
4.2.7 The Role of Toll-like Receptor (TLR) Ligands
4.2.8 Autoimmunity
4.3 Novel Therapeutic Intervention
4.3.1 Engineering the Gut Microbiota
4.3.2 Personalized Nutrition
4.3.3 Probiotics and Prebiotics
4.3.4 Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT)
4.3.5 Vaccination
4.4 Conclusion
References
5: Animal Inflammation-Based Models of Neuropsychiatric Disorders
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Animal Models of Inflammation and CNS Disorders
5.3 Zebrafish Models
5.4 Conclusion
References
6: Early Life Stress, Neuroinflammation, and Psychiatric Illness of Adulthood
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Early Life Stress and Inflammation
6.2.1 Experimental Animal Studies
6.3 Early Life Stress and Inflammation
6.3.1 Observational Human Studies
6.4 Inflammation and Psychiatric Illness
6.4.1 Experimental Animal Studies
6.5 Inflammation and Psychiatric Illness
6.5.1 Observational an Experimental Human Studies
6.6 Early Life Stress and Psychiatric Illness
6.6.1 Experimental Animal Studies
6.7 Early Life Stress and Psychiatric Illness
6.7.1 Observational Human Studies
6.8 Discussion
References
7: C-Reactive Protein (CRP): A Potent Inflammation Biomarker in Psychiatric Disorders
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Depressive Disorders
7.3 Bipolar Disorders
7.4 Suicidality
7.5 Schizophrenia and Psychotic Spectrum Disorders
7.6 Fear and Anxiety Disorders
7.7 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
7.8 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
7.9 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
7.10 Addictive Disorders
7.11 COVID-19-Related Psychopathology
7.12 Conclusion
References
Part II: Inflammation and Specific Disorders
8: Stress and Kynurenine-Inflammation Pathway in Major Depressive Disorder
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Kynurenine Pathway
8.3 Kynurenine Pathway and Inflammation
8.4 Stress and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis and Kynurenine Pathway
8.5 Kynurenine Pathway and Major Depressive Disorder
8.6 Kynurenine Pathway, Autonomic Nervous System, and MDD
8.7 Epigenetic, Kynurenine Pathway, and MDD
8.8 Aging, MDD, and Kynurenine Pathway
8.9 Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis and Kynurenine Pathway and MDD
8.10 Kynurenine Pathway and Physical Exercise and MDD
8.11 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
9: Glial-Neuronal Interaction in Synapses: A Possible Mechanism of the Pathophysiology of Bipolar Disorder
9.1 Introduction
9.2 BD and Glial Cells
9.3 BD and Neurons
9.4 Neuron-Glia Interactions in BD
9.5 Conclusion
References
10: Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Major Depression: A New Therapeutic Approach
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Major Depression: A Gut-Brain Axis Disorder
10.3 Gut Microbiota Disruption Is a Stable Hallmark of Major Depression
10.3.1 Associations Between Gut Microbiota Disruption and Major Depression in Human Studies
10.3.2 Associations Between Gut Microbiota Disruption and Depressive-Like Behavior in Animal Studies
10.4 Gut Microbiota Restoration Alleviates Major Depression
10.5 Conclusions
References
11: PTSD, Immune System, and Inflammation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Inflammation in PTSD
11.3 PTSD, Inflammation, and Cardiovascular Disease
11.4 Cytokines in PTSD
11.5 Oxidative Stress in PTSD
11.6 Chemokines in PTSD
11.7 CRP and PTSD
11.8 Stress-Related Regulation of the Kynurenine Pathway
11.9 The Gut-Brain Axis in PTSD
11.10 Potential Treatment
11.11 Conclusion
References
12: Sleep Immune Cross Talk and Insomnia
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Changes in Immunity During Physiological Sleep
12.2.1 Cytokines
12.2.1.1 Pro-inflammatory Cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α)
12.2.1.2 Anti-inflammatory Cytokines (IL-4, IL-10)
12.2.1.3 Ratio of Pro- and Anti-inflammatory Cytokines
12.2.2 Immunity Cells
12.2.3 Effects of Sleep on Adaptive Immunity: The Example of Vaccination
12.2.4 Sleep Response to Acute Immune Activation
12.2.4.1 Sleep Architecture Modifications during Infection
12.3 Insomnia and Immunity
12.3.1 Effects of a Reduced Sleep Duration on Immunity
12.3.2 Insomnia and Immunity
12.3.3 Insomnia Treatments and Immunity
12.3.3.1 Non-pharmacological Sleep Intervention: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT-I)
12.3.3.2 Pharmacological Sleep Intervention
GABAa-Receptor Allostatic Modulators
Orexin Receptor Antagonists (DORAs)
12.3.3.3 Antidepressants
12.3.3.4 Melatonin Receptor Agonists
12.4 Conclusion
References
13: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, PANDAS, and Tourette Syndrome: Immuno-inflammatory Disorders
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Methods
13.3 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
13.3.1 Peripheral Biomarkers of Inflammation in OCD
13.3.2 Microglia Activation in OCD
13.3.3 The Role of Genetics and Fetal-Maternal Immune Interactions
13.3.4 Autoimmunity and OCD
13.4 PANDAS
13.5 Tourette Syndrome
13.5.1 Genetic Vulnerability to an Aberrant Autoimmune Response in TS
13.5.2 Microglia Activation in TS
13.5.3 Effector Molecules of Immunity/Inflammation and Their Role in TS
13.5.4 Regulation/Dysregulation of Immunity Cells in TS: Which Ones and How?
13.6 Future Directions
13.7 Conclusions
References
14: Molecular Imaging of Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer´s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
14.3 Targets of PET Concerning Neuroinflammation in AD and MCI
14.3.1 Microglia
14.3.2 Astrocytes
14.4 Targets for Detecting Microglial Activity in AD and MCI Patients
14.4.1 18-kDa Translocator Protein (TSPO)
14.4.2 Existing TSPO Radioligands
14.4.3 Genetic Polymorphism Affecting TSPO Quantification by PET
14.4.4 Other Radiotracers Targeting Microglial Activation
14.5 Targets for Detecting Activity of Astrocytes in AD and MCI Patients
14.5.1 Enzymes
14.5.2 Other Markers
14.6 PET Imaging of Neuroinflammation in AD
14.6.1 Subtypes of AD
14.6.2 Cognitive Deficits of AD
14.6.3 Amyloid Deposition
14.7 PET Imaging of Neuroinflammation in MCI
14.8 Clinical Implications of Molecular Imaging for Neuroinflammation in AD and MCI
14.9 Conclusion
References
15: A Potential Role for Neuroinflammation in ADHD
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Aetiology in ADHD
15.3 Diagnosis of ADHD
15.4 Treatment of ADHD
15.5 Pathophysiology of ADHD
15.6 Neuroinflammation
15.6.1 Key Inflammatory Cytokines
15.7 Neuroinflammation in ADHD
15.7.1 Genetic Variants in ADHD
15.7.2 Autoantibodies in ADHD
15.7.3 Comorbidity of ADHD with Other Diseases and Factors
15.8 ADHD Medications and Neuroinflammation
15.9 Use of Dietary and Natural Compounds Against Neuroinflammation in ADHD
15.10 Conclusion
References
16: A Link Between Inflammatory Mechanisms and Fibromyalgia
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 History of Fibromyalgia
16.1.2 Clinical Phenotype and Diagnostic Criteria for Fibromyalgia
16.1.3 Epidemiology, Demographics, and Prevalence
16.1.4 Differential Diagnosis
16.1.5 Neuroinflammation and Psychiatric Illness
16.1.6 Additional Etiologic Factors in FM
16.2 A Link Between Inflammation and Illness
16.2.1 Overview of Inflammation
16.2.2 Neuroinflammation
16.2.3 Cytokines and FM
16.2.4 Neuroinflammation and FM
16.3 Discussion
16.3.1 Stress and Its Relation to FM Symptoms
16.3.2 Potential Model for Neuroinflammation and Symptoms
16.3.3 Pain Symptoms
16.3.4 Mood and Behavioral Symptoms
16.4 Treatment Considerations
16.4.1 Nonpharmacologic Treatment
16.4.2 Pharmacologic Treatment
16.4.3 Additional Agents
16.5 Conclusion
References
17: Suicide and Inflammation
17.1 Suicide
17.2 The Immune System
17.3 Peripheral Versus Central Immunity
17.4 Evidence for Role of Immune Dysregulation in Suicide
17.4.1 Suicide Associated with Inflammatory Treatments
17.4.2 Suicide Associated with Inflammatory Disorders
17.4.3 Peripheral Inflammation Observed in Suicidal Patients
17.4.4 Peripheral Cytokines
17.4.5 Peripheral Human C-Reactive Protein (hCRP)
17.4.6 Kynurenine Pathway
17.5 Central Nervous System Inflammation
17.5.1 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
17.5.2 Brain Imaging
17.5.3 Postmortem Brain
17.6 Treatment Studies
17.7 Potential Mechanism: Early-Life stress
References
Part III: Inflammation and Therapeutic Interventions
18: Effects of Current Psychotropic Drugs on Inflammation and Immune System
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Pathophysiology of Different Psychiatric Disorders
18.2.1 Depression or Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
18.2.2 Anxiety or Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
18.2.3 Alzheimer´s Disease (AD)
18.2.4 Schizophrenia
18.2.4.1 Neurodevelopmental Approach and Infection Link to Schizophrenia
18.3 Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders
18.3.1 Associationship of Depression with Inflammation and Immune System
18.3.2 Association of Anxiety with Inflammation and Immune System
18.3.3 Association of AD with Inflammation and Immune System
18.3.4 Association of Schizophrenia with Inflammation and Immune System
18.3.5 Association of Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders with Inflammation and Immune System
18.4 Psychotropic Drugs
18.4.1 Effect of Psychotropic Drugs on Inflammation
18.4.1.1 Antidepressants on Inflammation
18.4.1.2 SSRIs, SNRIs, and Tricyclic Antidepressants on Inflammation
18.4.1.3 Tetracyclic Antidepressant: Mianserin
18.4.1.4 Antianxiety Drugs and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Medications on Inflammation
18.4.1.5 Anti-Alzheimer´s Drugs on Inflammation
18.4.1.6 Antipsychotic Drugs on Inflammation
18.5 Conclusion
References
19: Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Traditional Chinese Medicine on the Concept of Mind-Body Interface
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Methods
19.3 Results
19.3.1 Depression
19.3.2 Alzheimer´s Disease
19.3.3 Parkinson´s Disease
19.4 Discussion
19.4.1 Depression
19.4.2 Alzheimer´s Disease
19.4.3 Parkinson´s Disease
19.5 Conclusion
References
20: Anti-Inflammatory Therapy as a Promising Target in Neuropsychiatric Disorders
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Immune-Associated Pathophysiology of Mental Diseases
20.2.1 Anxiety Disorders
20.2.2 Mood-Related Disorders
20.2.3 Schizophrenia
20.2.4 Autism Disorders
20.3 Anti-Inflammatory and Immune-Based Therapies for Treatment-Resistant Mental Illness
20.3.1 Cytokine Antagonists and Agonists
20.3.2 Glucocorticoids
20.3.3 Unconventional Anti-Inflammatory Agents
20.4 Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs): The Targeting of Cox-2
20.5 Final Remarks
References
21: The Glutamatergic System in Treatment-Resistant Depression and Comparative Effectiveness of Ketamine and Esketamine: Role ...
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Background
21.3 Glutamate´s Role in CNS Function
21.4 Glutamate´s Receptors
21.5 Glutamatergic System in Depression
21.6 The Role of NMDAR in MDD
21.7 The Role of AMPAR in MDD
21.8 History of Ketamine and Esketamine
21.9 Clinical Data Supporting Use in TRD
21.10 Ketamine and Esketamine´s Mechanism of Action: NMDAR and AMPAR
21.11 Benefits and Drawbacks of Therapy
21.12 Role of Inflammation in MDD and TRD
21.13 Ketamine, Esketamine, and Inflammation
21.14 Future Direction
21.15 Conclusion
References
22: The Strategy of Targeting Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor (PPAR) in the Treatment of Neuropsychiatric Disorders
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor (PPAR)-α and Inflammation
22.2 PPAR-α as Potential Molecular Target for Neuropsychiatric Conditions
22.2.1 Alzheimer´s Disease
22.2.2 Parkinson´s Disease
22.2.3 Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders
22.2.4 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
22.2.5 Major Depressive Disorder
22.2.6 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
22.2.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
23: Ketogenic Diet and Inflammation: Implications for Mood and Anxiety Disorders
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Mood and Anxiety Disorders
23.2.1 Symptoms and Underlying Neurobiological Mechanisms of Mood Disorders
23.2.2 Anxiety Disorders: Link with Inflammation
23.3 Ketogenic Diet and Inflammation
23.4 Ketogenic Diet in Mood Disorders
23.4.1 Evidence from Animal Studies
23.4.2 Evidence from Human Studies
23.5 Ketogenic Diet in Anxiety Disorders
23.6 Conclusion
References