Natural Fiber Composites: Processing, Characterization, Applications, and Advancements

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Authors
1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Green Chemistry and Renewable Bio-Based Products
1.2 Composites and Reinforcements
1.3 Introduction to Natural Fibers
1.4 Classification of Natural Fiber
1.5 Extraction of Natural Fibers
1.6 Various Extraction Methodologies
1.7 History and Present Scenario of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites
1.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Conclusion
References
2. Extraction of Natural Fibers
Introduction
2.1 Physical Extraction
2.1.1 Retting
2.1.2 Steam Explosion Method
2.1.3 Crushing, Grinding, and Rolling Mill
2.2 Chemical Extraction
2.2.1 Degumming
2.2.2 Chemical Retting
2.3 Physical and Chemical Extraction
2.4 Effect of Extraction Technique on Quality of Fibers
2.5 New and Uncommon Natural Fibers
2.5.1 Fibers Explored in Year 2018
2.5.2 Fibers Explored in Year 2019
2.5.3 Fibers Explored in Year 2020
Conclusion
References
3. Traditional and Advance Characterization Techniques for Natural Fibers
3.1 Properties and Evaluation of Natural Fibers
3.2 Compositional Analysis of Natural Fibers
3.2.1 Cellulose
3.2.2 Hemicellulose
3.2.3 Lignin
3.2.4 Standard Methods for Estimation of Cellulose Hemicelluloses and Lignin
3.2.4.1 Ash Content
3.2.4.2 Extractive Content
3.2.4.3 Hemicellulose Content
3.2.4.4 Lignin Content
3.2.4.5 Cellulose Content
3.3 Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers
3.4 Density and Diameter Measurement
3.4.1 Diameter Measurement
3.4.2 Density Measurement of Natural Fibers
3.4.2.1 Linear Density Calculations
3.4.2.2 Buoyancy Method (Archimedes Principle)
3.4.2.3 Pycnometery (Helium)
3.5 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
3.6 X-Ray Diffraction
3.7 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) Is Another Surface-Sensitive Quantitative
3.8 AFM Analysis
3.8.1 Optical Microscopy
3.8.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy
3.8.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy
3.8.4 Atomic Force Microscopy
3.9 Thermogravimetric Analysis
3.9.1 Thermal Degradation Kinetics and Activation Energy
3.10 Recent Advancements
3.10.1 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy
3.10.2 Raman Spectroscopy
3.10.3 Contact Angle and Wettability Analysis of Natural Fibers
Conclusion
References
4. Surface Treatment of Natural Fibers (Chemical Treatment)
4.1 Factors Affecting Properties of Natural Fibers and Their Composites
4.2 Different Chemical Treatment Methodologies
4.3 Effect on Properties
4.3.1 Alkali Treatment
4.3.2 Silane Treatment
4.3.3 Benzoyl Chloride Treatment
4.3.4 Isocyanate Treatment
4.3.5 Potassium Permanganate Treatment
4.3.6 Acetylation Treatment
4.3.7 Peroxide Treatment
4.3.8 Maleated Coupling Agent
4.3.9 Acrylation Treatment
Conclusion
References
5. Physical and Biological Treatment
Introduction
5.1 Plasma Treatment
5.2 Corona Treatment
5.3 Ultrasonic Treatment
5.4 Steam Explosion
5.5 Biological Treatment
5.5.1 Bacterial Cellulase
5.5.2 Fungi
5.5.3 Enzymes
5.6 Effect on Properties
Conclusion
References
6. Fabrication of Composites
Introduction
6.1 Compression Molding
6.2 Injection Molding
6.3 Hot Press/Cold Press
6.4 Extrusion Molding
6.5 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
6.6 Sheet Molding Compound (SMC)
6.7 Design of Natural Fiber Composites for Diverse Applications and Structural Engineering
Conclusion
References
7. Traditional and Advanced Characterization Techniques for Reinforced Polymer Composites
7.1 Properties and Evaluation of Natural Fiber Composites
7.1.1 Classification of Natural Fibers
7.1.1.1 Plant Fibers
7.1.1.2 Animal Fiber
7.1.1.3 Mineral Fiber
7.1.2 Properties of Natural Fibers Composites
7.1.3 Evaluation of Mechanical Performance of Natural Fiber Composite
7.1.3.1 Fiber Selection
7.1.3.2 Matrix Selection
7.1.3.3 Interface Strength
7.1.3.4 Fiber Dispersion
7.1.3.5 Fiber Orientation
7.1.3.6 Manufacturing
7.1.3.7 Porosity
7.2 Mechanical Characterization
7.2.1 Tensile Test
7.2.2 Impact Testing
7.2.3 Flexural Test
7.2.4 Interlaminar Shear Stress or Short Beam Shear Test
7.2.5 Creep Test
7.3 Dynamic Mechanical Characterization (DMA)
7.4 Water Diffusion Analysis
7.5 Thermo Gravimetric and DSC Analysis
7.6 Contact Angle and Wettability Analysis
7.6.1 Definition of Contact Angle
7.6.1.1 Case I) When θ = 0°
7.6.1.2 Case II) When 0° < θ < 90°
7.6.1.3 Case III) When 90° < θ < 180°
7.6.2 Contact Angle Hysteresis
7.6.3 Measurement of Contact Angle
7.6.3.1 Sessile Drop Technique
7.6.3.2 Wilhelmy Balance Method
7.6.4 Applications of Contact Angle Measurement and Wettability Analysis in Composites
7.7 Recent Developments
Conclusion
References
8. Thermoset Polymer Matrix-Based Natural Fiber Composites
Introduction
8.1 Natural Fibers, Thermosets, and Types
8.1.1 Phenolic Resin
8.1.2 Polyesters
8.1.3 Epoxy Resin
8.1.4 Polyimide
8.1.5 Vinyl ester Resin
8.1.6 Polyurethane Resin
8.1.7 Bismaleimide Resin
8.1.8 Silicone Resin
8.1.9 Cyanate Ester Resin
8.1.10 Acrylates
8.2 Natural Fiber-Based Thermoset Composites
8.3 Chemical Treatments of Natural Fiber
8.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Fibers
8.4.1 Advantages
8.4.2 Disadvantages
8.5 Thermoset Composites
8.5.1 Thermoset Composite Reinforcement with Long Natural Fibers
8.5.2 Thermoset Composite Reinforcement with Short Natural Fibers
8.5.3 Thermoset Composite Preparation Techniques
8.5.3.1 Hand Layup Technique
8.5.3.2 Autoclave Molding Technique
8.5.3.3 Resin Transfer Molding Technique
8.5.4 Toughening of Thermosets and Approaches for Toughening
8.5.5 Network Alteration
8.5.6 Rubber Elastomer Second-Phase Toughening
8.5.7 Thermoplastic Elastomeric Toughening
8.5.8 Inter-Layering
8.5.9 Toughening Mechanisms
8.5.10 Mechanical Properties of Thermoset Polymers
8.5.10.1 Elastic Deformation
8.5.10.2 Plastic Deformation
8.5.10.3 Static Tensile Property
8.5.10.4 Static Torsional and Shear Properties
8.5.10.5 Dynamic Mechanical Behavior
8.5.10.6 Fracture Behavior
8.5.10.7 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
8.5.10.8 Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics
8.5.10.9 Essential Work of Fracture
8.5.11 Thermal Properties of Thermoset Polymers
8.5.11.1 Thermal Stability of Epoxy Resin
8.5.11.2 Thermal Stability of Polyester Resin
8.5.11.3 Thermal Stability of Cyanate Ester Resin
8.5.11.4 Thermal Stability of Polyimide
8.5.11.5 Thermal Stability of Vinyl Ester Resin
8.5.11.6 Thermal Stability of Phenolic Resin
8.5.12 Reinforcement of Thermosets
8.5.12.1 Reinforcing Methods
8.5.13 Applications of Thermosetting Matrix Natural Fiber
8.5.13.1 Automotive Applications
8.5.13.2 Infrastructure Applications
8.5.13.3 Aeronautical Applications
8.5.13.4 Marine Applications
8.5.13.5 Construction Applications
8.5.13.6 Sporting Applications
8.5.13.7 Transport Applications
Conclusion
References
9. Thermo Polymer Matrix-Based Natural Fiber Composite
Introduction
9.1 Natural Fibers
9.2 Types of Fibers
9.2.1 Wool Fiber
9.2.2 Silk Fiber
9.2.3 Cotton Fiber
9.2.4 Jute Fiber
9.2.5 Hemp Fiber
9.2.6 Flax Fiber
9.2.7 Bamboo Fiber
9.2.8 Asbestos Fiber
9.3 Properties of Plant Fibers
9.4 Methods for Reinforcement in Composites
9.4.1 Woven Fabrics
9.4.2 Braided Fabrics
9.4.3 Non-Woven Fabrics
9.4.4 Knitted Fabrics
9.5 Thermoplastic Polymer Matrix Composites
9.6 Fabrication Techniques for Thermoplastic Composites
9.6.1 Compression Molding
9.6.2 Filament Winding
9.6.3 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
9.6.4 Pultrusion
9.6.5 Vacuum Infusion
9.7 Mechanical Properties of NFR Thermoplastic Composite
9.7.1 Tensile Strength
9.7.2 Flexural Strength
9.7.3 Impact Properties
9.7.4 Interlaminar Shear Properties
9.8 Implementation of Natural Fiber Thermoplastics in Industries
Conclusion
References
10. Biodegradable Polymer-Based Natural Fiber Composites
Introduction
10.1 Biodegradable Polymers
10.2 Natural Fiber Biocomposites
10.2.1 Starch and Cellulose-Based Biocomposite
10.2.2 Poly (Hydroxyalkanoates) (PHA)-Based Composite
10.2.3 Poly (Lactic Acid) (PLA)-Based Composites
10.2.4 Polybutylene Succinate (PBS)-Based Biocomposite
10.2.5 Poly (ε-Caprolactone) (PCL)-Based Biocomposite
10.3 Biodegradation of Composites
10.4 Application of Biodegradable Composites
Conclusion
References
11. Applications of Natural Fibers-Reinforced Composites (I)
11.1 Plant-Based Fibers
11.1.1 Bast Fibers
11.1.1.1 Flax Fibers
11.1.1.2 Hemp Fibers
11.1.2 Leaf Fibers
11.1.2.1 Sisal Fibers
11.1.2.2 Palm Fibers
11.1.3 Seed Fibers
11.1.3.1 Cotton Fibers
11.1.3.2 Luffa Fibers
11.1.4 Fruit Fibers
11.1.4.1 Coir Fiber
11.1.5 Grass Fibers
11.1.5.1 Bamboo Fibers
11.2 Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
11.3 Leading Issues in Using Natural Fibers
11.3.1 Biological Degradation
11.3.2 Water Degradation
11.3.3 UV Degradation
11.3.4 Mechanical Degradation
11.3.5 Fire Degradation
11.4 Surface Modification of Plant Fibers
11.4.1 Chemical Modifications of Natural Fibers
11.5 Various Applications of Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
11.5.1 Automoible Applications of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites
11.5.1.1 Thermoplastic and Thermoset Polymers
11.5.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites in Automotive Applications
11.5.1.3 Fabrication of Composites in Automotive Industries
11.5.1.4 Interior Applications
11.5.1.5 Exterior Applications
11.5.1.6 Bumpers
11.5.1.7 Body-in-White (BIW)
11.5.2 Aircraft Applications
11.5.3 Naval Applications
11.5.4 Applications in Sporting Goods
11.5.5 Application in Soil Safety and Erosion Management
11.5.6 Applications of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites in Construction
11.5.6.1 Applications in Wall Building
11.5.6.2 Floorboards and Ceiling Structures
11.5.6.3 Composites Beams and Pillars
11.5.6.4 Flax Fibers
11.5.6.5 Jute Fibers
11.5.6.6 Sisal Fibers
11.5.6.7 Coconut Fibers
Conclusion
References
12. Applications of Natural Fibers-Reinforced Composites (II)
Introduction
12.1 Applications in Food Packaging
12.1.1 Factors Influencing Biocomposites' Behavior
12.2 Various Diverse Applications
12.2.1 NFRCs in Bioengineering and Environmental Engineering Applications
12.2.2 NFRCs in Military Applications
12.2.3 Electrical and Sensor Devices
12.2.4 Printed Circuit Boards
12.2.5 Insulation Boards
12.2.6 Household Furniture Applications
12.2.7 Consumer Products
12.2.8 Sports Industry
12.2.9 Aerospace Sector
12.3 Future Perspectives
Conclusions
References
Index