Natural and Synthetic Waxes: Origin, Production, Technology, and Applications

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Foreword
Part I Natural Waxes
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 General Survey of Waxes
1.2 Definitions of Waxes
1.2.1 Natural Recent Waxes
1.2.2 Mineral Hydrocarbon Waxes
1.2.3 Petroleum Waxes
1.2.4 Fully Synthetic Waxes
1.3 Brief History of Waxes
1.3.1 Waxes Used by Ancient Egyptians
1.3.1.1 The Mummification Process
1.3.1.2 Punic Wax
1.3.1.3 Nefertiti
1.3.2 Greeks, Romans, and Waxes
1.3.2.1 Bronze Casting
1.3.2.2 Wax Tablets in Ancient Times
1.3.2.3 Wax Tablets at Later Times
1.3.2.4 Candles
1.3.2.5 Waxes in Medicines and Cosmetics
1.3.2.6 Waxes as Cosmetics in Early Christianity
1.3.2.7 Wax Trading in the Middle Ages
1.3.3 Waxes from the Indians
1.4 Origin of Natural Waxes
1.4.1 Petroleum Waxes
1.4.2 Plant Waxes
1.4.3 Animal Waxes
References
Chapter 2 Waxes in Arts
2.1 Waxes in Paintings
2.2 Pre‐encaustic Painting
2.3 The Faiyum Mummy Portraits
2.4 Greece and Rome
2.5 Post Roman Wax Paintings
2.6 Revival of Encaustic
2.7 Wax, Effigies, Sculptures, and Masks
2.7.1 Middle Ages
2.7.2 Modern Age
2.7.3 Popular Arts
2.8 Votive Figures in Religion
2.9 Wax as Processing Aid in Arts and Craft
2.9.1 Short History of Etching
2.9.2 Art Casting
2.9.3 History of Art Casting
2.10 Waxes, Crafts, and Arts in the New World
2.10.1 Pre‐Columbian Art
2.10.2 Bronze and Gold Metallurgy in the New World
2.11 Wax Museums
2.12 Summary
References
Chapter 3 Photosynthesis of Plant Waxes
3.1 Chemical Composition of Plant Waxes
3.2 The Biochemical Pathway to Plant Waxes
3.3 Photosynthesis to Plant Waxes
3.4 Relevant Phases of Photosynthesis: The First Stage of Plant Wax Production
3.4.1 Energy Absorption
3.4.2 The Light Reaction Part I: Electron Transfer in Reaction Centers
3.4.3 The Light Part II: Transformation of Light Energy into Chemical Energy
3.4.4 Synthesis and Export of Stable Organic Compounds
3.5 Recent Research Results
3.6 From the Calvin Cycle to Wax
3.6.1 From Triose to Glucose
3.6.2 Glycolysis
3.6.3 Fatty Acid Synthesis
3.6.4 Elongation of Fatty to Wax Acid
3.7 Artificial Photosynthesis and Engineering Natural Waxes
3.7.1 G. Ciamician, a Pioneer in Photochemistry
3.7.2 Recent Developments
3.7.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 The Natural Animal Waxes
Chapter 5 Insect Waxes
5.1 Beeswax
5.1.1 Chemical Composition on Beeswax
5.1.1.1 Propolis
5.1.2 Antioxidant Effect
5.1.3 Antimicrobial and Virostatic Effects
5.1.4 Construction of the Wax Comb
5.1.5 Commercialization of Beeswax
5.1.6 Cleaning and Bleaching of Beeswax
5.1.6.1 Heating with Fuller's Earth or Charcoal
5.1.6.2 Sun Exposure
5.1.6.3 Chemical Treatment
5.1.7 Uses of Beeswax
5.1.7.1 Candles
5.1.7.2 Cosmetics
5.1.7.3 Creams and Body Lotions
5.1.7.4 Wood Preservatives
5.1.7.5 Shoe and Leather Care
5.1.8 Economic Aspects
5.1.9 Actual Challenges
5.1.9.1 Environment
5.1.9.2 Insects
5.1.9.3 Pesticides
5.1.10 Quality Control
References
Chapter 6 Other Insect Waxes
6.1 Ghedda (Gedda) Wax
6.1.1 Properties
6.1.2 Chemical Composition
6.1.3 Comparison of European and Asian Beeswaxes
6.2 Chinese Insect Wax
6.2.1 Short Excursion into the Interesting Biology of These Insects
6.2.2 Properties
6.2.3 Chemical Composition
6.2.4 Applications
6.3 Shellac Wax
6.3.1 Cultivation
6.3.2 Isolation of Shellac Wax
6.3.3 Properties of Shellac Wax
6.3.4 Market
6.3.5 Registration Status
6.3.6 Applications
References
Chapter 7 Mammalian Animal Waxes
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Wool Wax
7.2.1 Wool Wax – Lanolin – Wool Fat or Grease: Definition of Terms
7.2.2 Wool Wax – Valuable By‐product
7.2.3 Separation of Lanolin from Sheep's Wool
7.2.4 Composition of Wool Wax
7.2.5 Applications
7.2.6 Toxicology
7.2.7 Potential Classification of Wool Wax or Lanolin as an Allergenic Substance
7.3 Mammalian Marine Waxes
7.3.1 Spermaceti
7.3.1.1 Properties
7.3.1.2 Applications
7.3.2 Amber and Ambergris
7.3.2.1 Amber and Ambergris Occurrence
7.3.2.2 Legality Today
7.4 Mammalian Human Waxes: Earwax/Cerumen
7.4.1 General
7.4.2 The Position of Cerumen in the Realm of Waxes
7.4.3 Biosynthesis of Ear Wax
7.4.4 Appearance and Composition
7.4.5 Earwax in Oncology
7.4.6 Summary
7.5 Marine Waxes
7.5.1 Marine Animals Waxes
7.5.2 Composition of Marine Waxes
7.6 Other Marine Waxes
7.7 Bird Waxes
7.7.1 Biosynthesis and Composition of Bird Waxes
7.7.2 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8 Carnaúba Wax
8.1 Introduction
8.2 History
8.3 General Properties of Carnaúba Wax
8.4 Economic Aspects
8.5 Origin
8.6 Occurrence and Exploitation
8.7 Harvesting Carnaúba
8.8 Grinding
8.9 Micronization
8.10 Carnaúba‐Wax‐Based Emulsions
8.11 Types and Specifications
8.12 Uses and Applications of Carnaúba Wax Grades
8.12.1 Pharmaceuticals
8.12.2 Food
8.12.3 Citrus Fruit Coating
8.13 Cosmetics
8.14 Care Products
8.14.1 Shoe Polish
8.14.2 Solvent‐Based Polishes
8.14.3 Floor and Stone Floor Care
8.14.4 Car Polish
8.15 Candles
8.16 Printing Inks
8.17 Plastics Industry
8.18 Varnishes/Coatings
8.19 Economic Outlook
8.20 Physical and Chemical Properties
8.21 Chemical Composition of Carnaúba Wax
8.22 Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of Carnaúba Wax
8.23 Registration Status
8.24 Policosanol in Carnaúba Wax
References
Chapter 9 Candelilla or the “Great Wax Rush”
9.1 History
9.2 Occurrence and Isolation
9.3 Working Up Candelilla
9.4 The Candelilla Wax Value Chain
9.5 Main Applications and Uses of Candelilla Wax
9.5.1 Cosmetics
9.5.2 Polishes
9.5.3 Candle, Hot Melt, Polymer Processing
9.5.4 Pharmaceutical Industry
9.5.5 Food Industry
9.6 Physical and Chemical Properties and Composition of Candelilla Wax
9.7 Economic Aspects
9.8 Comparison Between Candelilla and Sugarcane Wax
9.9 Registration Status
References
Chapter 10 Montan Wax
10.1 A General Description
10.2 The Future of Montan Wax
10.3 Formation and Occurrence of Montan Wax
10.4 The Origin of Montan Wax
10.5 Separation of Montan Wax from Lignite
10.6 Extraction
10.7 Details of Montan Wax Production
10.8 Properties and Composition
10.9 Montan Wax Components
10.10 Resins and Dark Residues
10.11 Applications for Crude Montan Wax
10.11.1 Preparation of Emulsions
10.11.2 Bitumen Industry
10.12 Refining and Derivatization
10.12.1 Deresinification
10.12.2 Bleaching
10.12.3 Distillation
10.12.4 Oxidation with Nitric and Sulfuric Acid
10.12.5 Oxidation with Chromic Acid or Chromates in Sulfuric Acid
10.13 Further Processing and Refining of Bleached Montan Wax
10.14 Derivatization
10.15 Uses and Economic Aspects
10.16 Selected Technical Applications for Montan Waxes
10.16.1 Historical Overview
10.16.2 Care and Polishing Industry
10.16.3 Behavior of Natural Waxes When Exposed to Solvents
10.16.4 Solubility of Waxes
10.16.5 Montan Waxes for Shoe Polishes
10.16.6 Montan Waxes for Polishes
10.16.7 Powder Coatings
10.16.8 Montan Wax for Rigid PVC Processing
10.16.9 Excursion into Calendering Films and Sheets
10.16.10 Rigid PVC Extrusion
10.16.11 Special Advantages of Rigid PVC Lubricants
10.16.12 Masterbatch
10.17 Registration Status
10.18 Montan Wax and Other Natural Wax Substitutes from Linear Alpha Olefins
10.18.1 What Are “Linear Alpha‐olefins” (LAOs)?
10.18.2 Linear Alpha‐Olefins
10.18.3 Linear Alpha‐olefin Waxes
10.19 Modified Linear Alpha Olefin Waxes
10.19.1 Oxidation of Alpha‐Olefins (Schematic)
10.19.2 Addition of MSA as Dienophile to Alpha Olefin (Schematic)
10.19.3 Grafting with Peroxides
10.19.4 LAO Copolymers with Maleic Anhydride
10.20 Production of Linear Alpha‐olefins
10.20.1 The Starting Point: The Ziegler “Aufbau Reaction”
10.20.2 Shell Higher Olefin Process (SHOP)
10.20.3 INEOS: Ethyl Process
10.20.4 Chevron Phillips: Gulfene Process
10.20.5 Other LAO Processes
10.20.6 The Idemitsu Petrochemical Process
10.20.7 SABIC‐Linde α‐Sablin® Process
10.20.8 Sasol Fischer–Tropsch Alpha‐Olefins
10.21 Summary of Applications of Alpha‐Olefins
10.22 Short Overview of Technical Applications of Linear Alpha‐olefin Waxes
10.23 Peat Wax
10.23.1 Short Description
10.23.2 Registration Status
10.24 Ozokerite Wax
10.24.1 Sources
10.24.2 Properties
10.24.3 Mining
10.24.4 Registration Status
References
Chapter 11 Sugarcane Wax
11.1 Introduction–General Considerations
11.2 Occurrence and Isolation
11.3 Production of Sugarcane Worldwide (2018)
11.4 Composition of Sugarcane Wax
11.5 Separation of Sugarcane Wax
11.5.1 Value Chain of Sugar: The Indian Company Godavari Biorefineries Ltd.
11.6 Delivery Forms and Composition
11.7 Production
11.8 Further Applications of Sugarcane Wax
11.9 Medical and Dietary Aspects of Sugarcane Wax
11.10 Description of Policosanol
11.10.1 Separation of Policosanol from Sugarcane Wax
11.10.2 Potential Medical Effects of Policosanol
11.10.3 The “Positive” Studies
11.10.4 Controversial Comments
11.11 Rice Bran Wax
11.11.1 Applications
11.11.2 Registration Status
References
Chapter 12 Japan Wax
12.1 General Reflections About Japan Wax
12.2 Refining Japan Wax
12.3 Chemical Composition of Japan Wax
12.4 Uses of Japan Wax
12.5 Economy
12.6 Registration Status
12.7 Castor Wax or Ricinus Wax
12.7.1 General Description
12.7.2 Chemical Composition of Castor Oil
12.7.3 Origin
12.7.4 Production Process of Hydrogenated Castor Oil Wax: Castor Wax
12.7.5 Uses and Applications
12.7.5.1 Plastics Industry
12.7.5.2 Lubricants Industry
12.7.5.3 Cosmetics Industry
12.7.5.4 Ink and Coating Industry
12.7.5.5 Miscellaneous
12.7.6 Registration Status
12.8 Ricinus communis Linnaeus: “The Umbrella Murder Case”
References
Chapter 13 Palm Wax
13.1 General Considerations
13.2 Origin of Palm Oils
13.3 Agriculture of Oil Palm Trees
13.4 Extraction of Palm Oil
13.5 Palm Kernel Oil
13.5.1 From Palm Oil to Palm Wax
13.6 Outlook
References
Chapter 14 Wax of Manzanita Leaves
14.1 A General
14.2 Potential Medical Effects
14.3 Manzanita Roots and Smoking Pipes
References
Chapter 15 Waxes of Citrus Fruits and Leaves
15.1 Chemical Composition
15.1.1 Hydrocarbon Length Distribution in Citrus Fruits and Leaves
15.2 Primary Alcohol Carbon Length Distribution in Citrus Fruits and Leaves
15.3 Fatty Acids and Wax Acids Length Distribution
15.4 Waxes from Larrea Leaves and Stems
15.5 Sunflower Wax
15.5.1 A General
15.5.2 The Winterization Process
15.5.3 Properties of Sunflower Wax
15.5.4 Composition of Sunflower Wax
15.5.5 Uses and Applications
15.5.6 Registration Status
15.6 Soy (or Soybean) Wax
15.6.1 Description and Use
15.6.2 Properties
15.7 Other Waxes from Hydrogenated Oils
15.8 Tea Wax
15.8.1 Technical Data
15.8.2 Registration Status
15.9 Jasmine Wax
15.9.1 Technical Data
15.9.2 Registration Data
15.10 Rose Wax
15.10.1 Technical Data
15.10.2 Registration Data
References
Part II Synthetic Waxes
Chapter 16 Synthetic Waxes
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The Building Blocks of Synthetic Waxes: Monomers, Oligomers, and Polymers
16.2.1 Monomer Molecule
16.2.2 Oligomer Molecule
16.2.3 Macromolecules – Polymer Molecules
16.3 Short Introduction to Molar Mass and Distributions
16.3.1 Summary
16.4 The Chemical Structure of Synthetic Polymer and Chemically Related Waxes
16.5 Molecular Structure of Synthetic and Petroleum Waxes
16.5.1 Hermann Staudinger and the Beginning of the Polymer Age
16.6 Discrimination Between Waxes and Plastics – A Brief Excursion into Polymer Physics
16.6.1 Regulations
References
Chapter 17 Polyolefin Waxes
17.1 General
17.1.1 Polyethylene – the Early Beginning
17.1.2 Another Early Approach to Polyethylene
17.1.3 Polyethylene Waxes
17.1.4 Polyethylene Waxes Produced by Polymerization
17.1.4.1 Polyethylene Waxes Produced by Low‐pressure Polymerization
17.1.4.2 Polyethylene Made by Phillips Catalysts
17.1.4.3 Ziegler–Natta: The invention
17.1.5 Olefin Polymerization
17.1.5.1 The Reaction Mechanism
17.2 Industrial Production of Ethylene Polymers: Plastics and Waxes
17.2.1 High‐Pressure Polymerization
17.2.1.1 Low‐Density Polyethylene High‐Pressure Waxes
17.2.1.2 Waxes Made by Free Radical Polymerization
17.2.1.3 The Free‐Radical Polymerization Production Processes
17.2.2 High‐Pressure LDPE Wax Producers
17.2.3 Low‐Pressure Ziegler–Natta Polymerization
17.2.3.1 Ziegler–Natta PO Wax Plants
17.2.4 Low‐Pressure Metallocene Polymerization
17.2.4.1 Metallocene Waxes
17.2.4.2 Waxes Produced with Metallocene‐MAO Catalyst Systems
17.2.5 The Chemistry of Metallocene Polymerization
17.2.5.1 Reaction Mechanism
17.2.5.2 Thermal Degradation of Polyolefins
17.2.5.3 Waxes as Byproducts of Polyolefin Synthesis
17.2.5.4 Scrap Waxes
17.3 Market and Economics
17.4 Use and Applications
17.4.1 Polyethylene Waxes for PVC Plastics
17.4.2 Wood‐Plastic Composites
17.4.2.1 History
17.4.2.2 WPCs Today
17.4.3 Waxes for Adhesives
17.4.3.1 The Special Contribution of Polyethylene Waxes to Adhesives
17.4.3.2 Water‐Based Adhesives
17.4.3.3 Vegetable Adhesives
17.4.3.4 Resin Adhesives
17.4.4 Waxes for Natural Glue
17.4.4.1 Animal or Protein Adhesive
17.4.4.2 History of Natural glue
17.4.4.3 Modern Use of Animal Glue
17.4.5 Natural Rubber‐Based Adhesives
17.4.6 Hot Melt Adhesives
17.4.6.1 Fast Setting Hot Melts
17.4.6.2 Delayed Setting Hot Melts
17.4.6.3 Pressure‐Sensitive Hot Melt Adhesives (HMPSA)
17.4.6.4 Remoistenable Glue
17.4.6.5 Polyamide Glues
17.4.6.6 Reactive Adhesives
17.4.6.7 Solvent‐Based Adhesives
17.4.6.8 PE Waxes for Packaging Adhesives
17.4.6.9 PE Waxes for Furniture and Building Adhesives and Primers
17.4.6.10 PE Waxes for Textile and Leather Adhesives
17.4.6.11 Repairs of Old Art Textile Pictures and Historical Garments with Adhesives
17.4.6.12 PE Waxes for Artificial Turf
17.4.6.13 Coatings for Corrugated Boards
17.4.6.14 Hot Melt Coatings in the Pharmaceutical Industry
17.4.6.15 The Relevance of Hot Melt Adhesives for the Wax Market
17.4.6.16 PE Waxes for Road Marking
17.4.6.17 Polyethylene Waxes for Cable Filling
17.4.6.18 Wax‐Based Cavity Sealing for Cars
17.4.6.19 Underbody Protection for Cars with Waxes
17.4.6.20 PE Waxes for Coatings
17.4.6.21 Micronized PE Waxes
17.4.7 PE Waxes for Textile Applications
17.4.7.1 History of Batik and African Prints
17.4.7.2 African Printing
17.4.7.3 Wax Prints on Fabrics Today
17.4.8 PE Waxes for Cotton
17.4.8.1 History of Waxed Cotton
17.4.8.2 PE Waxes for Cotton Today
17.4.8.3 PE Waxes as Needle Lubricants for Textile Production
17.4.8.4 PE Waxes for Leather Care Products
17.4.8.5 Instructions for a High Gloss Polish for Leather, Especially for Leather Shoes
17.4.9 PE Waxes for Masterbatch
17.4.10 PE Waxes as Lubricants in Plastics Processing
17.4.11 PE Waxes as Lubricants in Metalworking
17.4.12 Polyolefin Waxes as Release Agents
17.4.13 PE Waxes for Powder Metallurgy
17.4.13.1 An Example for Powder Metallurgy
17.4.14 PE Waxes for Injection Molding
17.4.15 Waxes and Fertilizers
17.4.15.1 History
17.4.15.2 PE Waxes for Fertilizers
17.4.15.3 Practical Application of Waxes in Fertilizers
17.4.16 Waxes as Agents for Pyrotechnics and Explosives
17.4.16.1 Short History of Explosives and Fireworks
17.4.16.2 The Chemistry of Fireworks
17.4.17 Waxes as Phlegmatization Agents for Powerful Explosive Chemicals
17.4.18 Dynamite
17.4.19 Fireworks Today
17.4.20 PE Waxes as Fibrously Felted Wax Wool for Oil and Solvent Binder
17.4.20.1 Polymer Absorbents
17.4.20.2 Waxes as Super Absorbents
17.4.20.3 Practical Issues
17.4.20.4 Production Process
17.4.20.5 Applications
References
Chapter 18 Polypropylene Waxes
18.1 General Overview
18.2 History of Polypropylene Plastics and Waxes
18.2.1 History: Phillips Petroleum
18.2.2 History: Giulio Natta
18.3 Polypropylene Plastics and Waxes: A Symbiotic Relationship
18.4 Chirality and Tacticity: Principles
18.4.1 Chirality
18.4.2 Tacticity
18.4.2.1 Isotactic Polypropylene Chains
18.4.2.2 Syndiotactic Polypropylene Chains
18.4.2.3 Atactic Polypropylene Chains
18.4.3 Tacticity of Industrial Polypropylene Waxes
18.5 PP Wax Polymerization Reactions and Processes
18.5.1 Reaction Mechanisms
18.5.2 Phillips Catalysts
18.5.3 Reaction Mechanisms
18.5.4 Production of PP Plastics and Waxes
18.5.5 The Giulio Natta Route to Polypropylene
18.5.6 Metallocene Catalyst Systems
18.6 Polyethylene and Polypropene Plastics and Waxes: A Comparison
18.7 Properties of Polypropylene Waxes
18.7.1 Isotactic PP Waxes
18.7.2 Copolymer PP‐PE Waxes
18.7.3 Syndiotactic PP Waxes
18.8 Atactic Polypropylene Wax‐like Materials (APO/APAO)
18.9 Applications of Polypropylene Waxes
18.9.1 General
18.9.2 Low Viscosity PP Waxes with Low Drop Point
18.9.3 Medium Viscosity PP Waxes with High Drop Point
18.9.4 Low Viscosity PP Waxes with High Drop Point
18.9.5 Selected Applications of PP Waxes
18.9.6 Dispersing Aid
18.9.7 Waxes for Different Hot Melt Adhesives
18.9.8 Inks and Coatings
18.9.9 Anti‐slip Additives for Wood Coatings
18.9.10 PP Wax as Matting Agent for Powder Coatings
18.9.11 Artificial Grass and Turf
18.9.12 PP Wax for Masterbatch
18.9.13 PP Wax Made by “Canadian Clean Technology” Company Green Mantra
18.10 Regulatory Aspects
18.11 Economic Aspects
References
Chapter 19 Petroleum and Related Crude Oil‐Based Waxes
19.1 Definitions
19.2 Introduction to Paraffin Waxes
19.3 History
19.4 Petroleum Wax Production from Crude Oil
19.4.1 General
19.4.2 The First Petroleum Refineries
19.5 Refinery Process
19.5.1 Separation
19.5.2 Conversion
19.5.2.1 Cracking
19.5.2.2 Steam cracking
19.5.2.3 Catalytic Cracking
19.5.2.4 Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC)
19.5.2.5 Hydrocracking
19.5.2.6 Visbreaking
19.5.2.7 Coking
19.5.2.8 Delayed Coking
19.5.2.9 Fluid Coking
19.5.3 Combining Processes
19.5.3.1 Polymerization
19.5.3.2 Alkylation
19.5.3.3 Isomerization
19.5.3.4 Reforming
19.5.4 Dewaxing
19.5.4.1 Cold Press Process
19.5.4.2 Dewaxing Without Solvent
19.5.4.3 Solvent Dewaxing
19.5.4.4 Urea Dewaxing Process
19.5.4.5 Catalytic Dewaxing Process
19.5.5 Wax Sweating Process
19.5.6 Acid Treatment Process
19.5.7 Wax Recrystallization Process
19.5.8 De‐oiling Process for Crude Waxes
19.5.8.1 Advantages of the Sulzer‐Sasol Process
19.5.8.2 Other New De‐oiling Concepts
19.5.8.3 Solvent De‐oiling Process
19.5.8.4 Pulping De‐oiling Process
19.5.8.5 Crystallization De‐oiling Process
19.5.8.6 Spray De‐oiling Process
19.5.9 Refining De‐oiled Slack Waxes
19.5.9.1 Refining with Adsorbents (Decolorizing)
19.5.9.2 Refining with Percolation Process
19.5.9.3 Refining with Hydrotreating
19.6 Petroleum Waxes are in Order of Refining
19.6.1 Slack Wax (Petroleum)
19.6.1.1 Regulatory Status
19.6.1.2 Applications
19.6.2 Slack Wax (Petroleum), Clay‐Treated
19.6.2.1 ECHA Definition (2021):
19.6.2.2 Regulatory Status
19.6.3 Slack Wax (Petroleum), Hydrotreated
19.6.3.1 ECHA Definition (2021)
19.6.3.2 Applications
19.6.3.3 Regulatory Status
19.6.4 De‐oiled Slack Wax, Paraffin Waxes and Hydrocarbon Waxes
19.6.4.1 EPA Definition (2021):
19.6.4.2 Applications
19.6.4.3 Regulatory Status
19.6.5 Crude Soft Waxes/Foots Oil (Petroleum)
19.6.5.1 ECHA Definition (2021):
19.6.5.2 Applications
19.6.5.3 Regulatory
19.6.6 Semirefined, Filtered (Decolorized)
19.6.7 Fully Refined Waxes
19.6.8 Filtered (Decolorized) Waxes, Clay Treated
19.6.8.1 TSCA Definition (2019):
19.6.8.2 Regulations
19.6.9 Microcrystalline Waxes
19.6.9.1 EPA Definition (2021):
19.6.9.2 Types of Microcrystalline Waxes
19.6.9.3 Some Applications of Microwaxes in Detail
19.6.10 Application of Petroleum Waxes in Principal
19.6.11 General Physical and Chemical Properties of Microcrystalline Waxes
19.6.11.1 Regulatory Status
19.6.12 Petroleum Jelly, Petrolatum or Vaseline®
19.6.12.1 ECHA Definition
19.6.12.2 History
19.6.12.3 Regulatory Status
19.6.13 Applications of Petrolatum
19.6.13.1 Skin Protection
19.6.13.2 Hair Protection
19.6.13.3 Outdoor Sports
19.6.13.4 Sexual Lubricants
19.6.13.5 Water Protective Coating
19.6.13.6 Finishing
19.6.13.7 Special Lubrication Uses
19.6.13.8 Other Applications
19.6.14 Health‐related Discussion for Petrolatum (Petroleum Jelly, Vaseline)
19.6.14.1 Oil‐based Waxes and Human Health
19.6.15 Environmental Aspects: Biodegradation of Waxes Based on Crude Oil
19.6.15.1 Paraffin Waxes
19.6.15.2 Environmental Fate of Crude Oil waxes: Short Summary
19.6.15.3 Other Environmental Issues
19.6.16 Global Consumption of Petroleum Waxes
19.6.17 Some Key Players in the Petroleum Wax Market (2021)
References
Chapter 20 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis (FTS) and Waxes
20.1 Introduction
20.2 History
20.3 Fischer–Tropsch Reaction Mechanism
20.4 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis (FTS)
20.4.1 Biomass‐to‐Liquids (BTL)
20.4.2 Coal‐to‐Liquids (CTL)
20.4.3 Gas‐to‐Liquids (GTL)
20.4.4 GTL/FTS Plants: Overview
20.4.5 GTL/Fischer–Tropsch Plants under Operation and Planning
20.5 Fischer‐Tropsch Waxes – Key Manufacturers
20.6 FT Waxes: Chemical and Physical Properties
20.6.1 FT Waxes – Properties of Selected Wax Grades from Sasol and Shell
20.7 Oxidized FT Waxes
20.7.1 History
20.7.2 Mechanism of Paraffin Oxidation
20.7.3 Oxidized Waxes Today
20.7.4 Application of Wax Oxidates
20.8 Liquid Applications of Waxes
20.8.1 Fischer–Tropsch and Other Waxes for Hot Melt Adhesive (HMA)
20.8.1.1 History of a Natural Adhesive Used by the Iceman “Ötzi”
20.8.1.2 Other Industrial Applications of FT Waxes for Hot Melt Adhesives
20.8.1.3 Private Use of HMAs
20.8.2 FT Waxes and Other Waxes for Inks, Paints, and Coatings
20.8.2.1 Grinding
20.8.2.2 Spraying of Waxes
20.8.3 Emulsions
20.8.3.1 Solutions, Dispersions, Emulsions, Colloids, and Suspensions
20.8.3.2 Preparation of Emulsions and Dispersions with Oxidized Waxes
20.8.3.3 Surfactant Systems of Emulsions
20.8.3.4 Oxidized Waxes for Water Based Emulsions
20.8.4 FT Wax for Coatings and Printing Inks
20.8.4.1 The Blooming Mechanism
20.8.4.2 The Ball Bearing Mechanism
20.8.4.3 Comparison of the Proposed Mechanisms
20.8.5 FT Waxes for the Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Industries
20.8.6 FT – Waxes for PVC or Plastic Processing
20.8.7 FT Waxes for Rubber and Tire
20.8.8 FT Waxes for Textiles and Fibers
20.8.9 FT Waxes for Leather and Fabric Impregnation
20.8.10 FT Waxes for Paper
20.8.11 FT Waxes and Paraffins for Wood Treatment
20.8.12 Waxes for Matches
20.8.12.1 History
20.8.12.2 Matches in Germany in the 20th History: An Episode
20.8.12.3 Modern Matches
20.8.13 Paraffins and waxes for Sticky Flypaper
20.8.14 Waxes for Pencils and Crayons
20.8.14.1 History
20.8.14.2 FT‐Paraffin and waxes for Pencils
20.8.14.3 FT Paraffin and Waxes for Production of Crayons
20.8.15 FT Waxes for Candles
20.8.16 Waxes for Road Construction
20.8.16.1 History
20.8.16.2 Waxes in Modern Road Construction
20.8.16.3 The Influence of Waxes on Bitumen Properties
20.8.16.4 Waxes for Road Repair and Recycling
20.8.16.5 Appendix
20.9 Regulatory Compliance
20.9.1 Regulatory
References
Chapter 21 Amide Waxes
21.1 General
21.2 History of Amide Waxes
21.3 N,N′‐Ethylenebis(stearamide): EBS
21.3.1 Production
21.3.2 Dust
21.3.3 Market
21.4 Applications
21.4.1 Amide Wax EBS for Road Construction
21.4.2 Amide Wax Ethylene (bis)Stearamide (EBS) as a Rheology Agent Mixed with Hydrogenated Castor Oil (EBS and HCO)
21.4.3 Registration Status for Hydrogenated Castor Oil with Amide Wax
21.4.4 Amide Waxes (EBS) as Additives in Plastics Processing
21.4.4.1 Blown Film Production
21.4.4.2 Compatibility
21.4.4.3 Nucleating Agents
21.4.4.4 Crystallization
21.4.4.5 Addition of Nucleating Agents
21.4.5 Rubber Processing
21.4.6 Amide Waxes N,N′‐Ethylene‐bis‐Stearamide and Other Waxes for Coatings and Printing Inks
21.4.6.1 Slip Aid
21.4.6.2 Abrasion Resistance
21.4.6.3 Anti‐blocking
21.4.6.4 Matting Agent
21.4.6.5 Water Repellency
21.4.6.6 Texturizer
21.4.7 Amide Waxes (EBS) for the Fiber Industry
21.4.8 Regulatory
21.5 Stearamide Wax
21.5.1 General
21.5.2 Applications
21.5.2.1 Thermal Paper
21.5.2.2 Polyolefin Films
21.5.2.3 Chemical Industry
21.5.2.4 Miscellaneous
21.5.3 Regulatory
21.6 Erucamide Wax
21.6.1 General
21.6.2 Applications
21.6.3 Ink Industry
21.6.4 Slip Additive
21.6.5 Miscellaneous
21.6.6 Regulatory:
21.7 Oleamide Wax
21.7.1 General
21.7.2 Oleamide of Natural Origin
21.7.3 Applications
21.7.3.1 Plastics Industry
21.7.3.2 Cosmetic Industry
21.7.3.3 Cable Industry
21.7.3.4 Ink Industry
21.7.4 Regulatory
21.8 Comparison of Anti‐blocking and Slip Properties Between Erucamide, Stearamide, and Oleamide Waxes
21.9 N,N′‐Ethylene‐bis‐Oleamide (EBO)
21.9.1 General
21.9.2 Production
21.9.3 Applications
21.9.4 Plastics
21.9.5 Regulatory Status:
References
Chapter 22 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Waxes
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Summary
22.1.2 History
22.1.3 General Properties of PTFE Waxes and Plastics
22.1.4 Production of TFE Monomer
22.1.5 Polymerization of TFE to PTFE Plastic and Waxes
22.1.6 Production Methods
22.1.7 Recycling of PTFE Plastic and Wax
22.1.8 The PTFE World Market
22.1.9 Selection of PTFE/Micronized PTFE Wax Suppliers
22.1.10 Physico‐chemical Properties
22.1.11 Applications of PTFE
22.1.11.1 PTFE Waxes for Inks and Coatings
22.1.11.2 Surface Texturing through Powder Coatings
22.1.11.3 Lubricants
22.1.11.4 Protection Against Chemicals
22.1.11.5 Ski Wax
22.1.11.6 Sailing
22.1.12 Environmental and Health Issues
22.1.13 Greenhouse Emissions
22.1.14 Summary
22.1.15 Workplace Hazards
22.1.16 Fluorinated Chemicals of Concern
22.1.16.1 The Ozone Hole
22.1.16.2 PFOA and PFAS
22.2 Resume
22.2.1 Regulatory
References
Appendix A Final Tables A.I–A.V: Listing of Aliphatic Compounds in Waxes
Appendix B Candles – A Most Popular Application Area for Waxes
B.1 Short Summary
B.2 Candles in Religion
B.3 Candles in Modern Science
References
Appendix C Test Methods for Characterizing Waxes
C.1 Test Methods for Waxes
C.2 Safety Data Sheets
Epilogue: The Future of Waxes
Index
EULA