Nanotoxicology in Nanobiomedicine

Preface
Disclaimer
Contents
About the Author
Chapter 1: Introduction and Historical Background
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Overview
1.3 Nanotoxicology
1.4 Nano Biomedicine
1.5 Nanoelectromechanical Systems
1.6 Microelectromechanical Systems
1.7 Nanotechnology: Structures
1.8 Historical Development
1.8.1 Early Period
1.8.2 Premodern Period
1.8.3 Middle Ages
1.8.4 Modern Nanotechnology
1.9 Regulations
1.10 Future Trends
1.10.1 Small Systems, Big Applications
1.10.2 Beating the Big C
1.10.3 Scientific Trends in Medicine
Further Reading
Chapter 2: Sources, Classification, Synthesis, and Biomedical Applications
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bulk Materials Versus NPs/NMs
2.3 Types
2.4 Classification
2.5 Sources
2.6 Production Approaches
2.7 Synthesis
2.8 Characterization
2.9 Properties
2.9.1 Physical Properties
2.9.2 Chemical Properties
2.10 Applications
2.11 Current Status
Further Reading
Chapter 3: Mechanism of Nanotoxicity
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Factors Affecting Nanotoxicity
3.2.1 Physicochemical Factors
3.2.2 Pre-exposure
3.2.3 Dose and Exposure Time
3.2.4 Environmental Factors
3.2.5 Other Factors
3.3 Entry Sites and Uptake
3.4 Fate in the Body
3.5 Cellular Uptake Pathways
3.6 Cell Membrane Interactions
3.6.1 Endocytosis
3.6.2 Other Entry Mechanisms
3.7 Intracellular Trafficking
3.8 Cellular Exocytosis
3.9 Processes of Nanotoxicity
3.9.1 Binding to Cell Exterior
3.9.2 Dissolution
3.9.3 Reactive Oxygen Species
3.9.4 Inflammation-Mediated Nanotoxicity
3.10 Pathways of Cellular Dysfunction
3.10.1 Apoptosis Versus Necrosis
3.10.2 Autophagy or “Autophagic Cell Death”
3.11 Conclusion
Further Reading
Chapter 4: Organ and Non-organ-Directed Nanotoxicity
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nanoparticles Versus Larger Particles
4.3 Nanoparticles for Medical Use
4.3.1 Metallic Substances
4.3.2 Non-metallic Substances
4.3.3 Polymeric Materials
4.3.4 Ceramic Materials
4.3.5 Semiconductor Materials
4.4 Applications in Biomedicine
4.5 Factors Influencing Nanotoxicity
4.6 Entry Sites, Fate, and Cellular Membrane Interactions
4.7 Health Exposure Concerns of Nanoparticles
4.8 Nanotoxicity
4.8.1 Organ Toxicity
4.8.1.1 Respiratory System
4.8.1.2 Cardiovascular System
4.8.1.3 Central Nervous System
4.8.1.4 Gastrointestinal
4.8.1.5 Renal (Kidney)
4.8.1.6 Reproductive System
4.8.2 Non-organ-Directed Toxicity
4.8.2.1 Carcinogenic and Genotoxic Effects
4.8.2.2 Immune System
4.9 Concluding Remarks
Further Reading
Chapter 5: Nanotoxicity: Health and Safety Strategies
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sustainable Nanotechnology
5.3 Regulation
5.3.1 European Union REACH
5.3.2 United States
5.3.3 International Law
5.4 Toxicity to Direct a Safe-by-Design
5.4.1 Overview of In Vitro and Alternative Methods
5.4.2 Overview of In Vivo Evaluation
5.5 Toxicity Assessment
5.5.1 Risk Assessment
5.5.2 Risk Management
5.5.3 Risk Communication
5.6 Challenges and Future Strategies
5.7 Conclusion
Further Reading
Chapter 6: Nano-Based Drug Delivery Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Delivery Routes
6.3 Nanocarriers
6.3.1 Organic NCs
6.3.1.1 Liposomes and Micelles
6.3.1.2 Dendrimers
6.3.1.3 Nanocrystals
6.3.2 Inorganic NCs
6.3.2.1 Graphene Oxide–Based NCs
6.3.2.2 Nanoshells
6.3.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes
6.3.3 Metallic NCs
6.3.4 Natural NCs
6.3.5 Hybrid NPs
6.4 NCs for Theranostic Drug Delivery
6.5 Factors Affecting Drug-Laden NCs
6.6 Properties of NCs
6.7 Uses and Applications
6.8 Targeted Drug Delivery
6.8.1 Passive Targeting
6.8.2 Active Targeting
6.8.3 Vascular Targeting (Endothelial Cells)
6.8.4 Targeting the Mildly Acidic Tumor Microenvironment (pH Specificity)
6.8.5 Temperature Specificity
6.8.6 Nuclear Targeting
6.9 Nanotoxicity and Safety
6.10 Challenges and Opportunities
Further Reading
Chapter 7: Applications of Nanotechnology in Dentistry
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Structure and Periodontal Tissues
7.3 Classification of Dental NMs
7.3.1 Conventional NPs
7.3.1.1 Metallic NPs
7.3.1.2 Metal Oxide NPs
7.3.2 Unconventional NMs
7.4 Dental Applications
7.4.1 Periodontics
7.4.2 Prosthodontics
7.4.3 Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
7.4.4 Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics
7.4.5 Restorative Dentistry
7.4.6 Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
7.4.7 Oral Medicine and Radiology
7.4.8 Preventive Dentistry
7.4.9 Dental Implant
7.4.10 Dentin Hypersensitivity
7.5 Nanotoxicity of Dental NMs
7.6 Conclusion
Further Reading
Chapter 8: Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Nanomaterials Used in TERM
8.2.1 Metallic NPs
8.2.2 Magnetic NPs
8.2.3 Ceramic NPs
8.2.4 Polymeric Nanoparticles
8.3 Scaffolds for TERM
8.4 Scaffolding Approaches
8.5 Properties of Scaffolds/Matrices for TERM
8.6 Applications and Use in TERM
8.6.1 Biological Properties
8.6.2 Mechanical Properties
8.6.3 Electrical Properties
8.6.4 Antibacterial Properties
8.6.5 Gene Delivery
8.6.6 Mechano-Transduction
8.6.7 Magnetic Cell Patterning
8.7 Constructing 3D Tissues
8.8 Bioactive Agents/Molecules
8.9 Imaging and Contrast Agents
8.10 Biocompatibility
8.11 Nanotoxicity of NMs
8.12 Conclusion
Further Reading
Chapter 9: Nanotechnology in Cancer Therapy
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Overview of Cancer
9.3 NPs/NMs Used in Cancer Therapy
9.3.1 External Stimuli-Responsive Systems
9.3.2 Self-Therapeutic NMs
9.3.3 Other Self-Therapeutic NMs
9.4 Benefits of Nanotechnology
9.4.1 Treatment and Therapy
9.4.2 Detection and Diagnosis
9.5 Mechanism of Action
9.5.1 Targeted Therapy
9.5.2 Self-Therapeutic NMs
9.6 Drug Release Strategy
9.7 Nanotoxicity
9.8 Challenges in Nano Cancer Therapy
Further Reading
Chapter 10: Nanomedicine in Immune System Therapy
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Overview of Immune System
10.2.1 Innate, or Nonspecific, Immunity
10.2.2 Adaptive Immunity
10.3 Applications of NPs
10.4 NPs for Immunotherapy
10.4.1 Immunosuppression
10.4.1.1 Immunostimulation
10.5 Targeted Delivery Systems
10.6 Nanotoxicity and Biosafety Issues
10.7 The Future Prospective in Immunotherapy
10.8 Challenges and Opportunities
Further Reading
Index