Nanocellulose Materials: Fabrication and Industrial Applications

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Contents
Contributors
CHAPTER 1 - Bacterial cellulose nanofibers for separation, drug delivery, wound dressing, and tissue engineering applications
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Support as separation medium
1.3 Wound dressings
1.4 Drug delivery vehicle
1.5 Tissue engineering applications
1.6 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 2 - Industrial-scale fabrication and functionalization of nanocellulose
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Nanocellulose production
2.2.1 Bottom-up approaches
2.2.1.1 Bacterial cellulose
2.2.1.2 Electrospinning
2.2.2 Top-down approaches
2.2.2.1 Mechanical processes
2.2.2.2 Chemical processes
2.2.3 Scale up and industrialization
2.3 Functionalization of nanocellulose
2.3.1 CNC functionalization
2.3.2 NFC functionalization
2.3.2.1 Covalent functionalization of NFC
2.3.2.2 Noncovalent modification of NFC
2.3.3 Functionalization of BC
2.4 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 3 - Nanocellulose in packaging industry
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Preparation and types of Nano cellulose
3.2.1 Classification of Nano cellulose
3.2.1.1 Nanocrystalline cellulose
3.2.1.2 Nanofibrils cellulose
3.2.1.3 Bacterial cellulose
3.2.2 Preparation of Nano cellulose
3.2.2.1 Pretreatment techniques
3.2.2.1.1 Hydrolysis by enzyme
3.2.2.1.2 Alkaline acid
3.2.2.1.3 Ionic fluids
3.2.2.2 Mechanical process
3.2.2.2.1 High-pressure homogenization
3.2.2.2.2 Micro fluidization
3.2.2.2.3 Grinding
3.2.2.2.4 Cryocrushing
3.2.2.2.5 High-force ultrasonication
3.2.2.2.6 Ball-processing process
3.2.2.3 Chemical hydrolysis
3.3 Types of packaging
3.3.1 Innovations for nano cellulose-based materials production
3.3.1.1 Layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly
3.3.1.2 Electrospinning (ES)
3.3.1.3 Composite expulsion
3.3.1.4 Casting from solution and evaporation
3.3.1.5 Coating
3.4 Applications of Nano cellulose in packaging
3.4.1 Nanocellulose in the paper industry
3.4.2 Nanocellulose in the composite industry
3.4.3 Nanocellulose in the biomedical industry
3.4.4 Nanocellulose in nanoparticulate drug delivery
3.4.5 Nanocellulose in tablet formulation
3.4.6 Nanocellulose in aerogels
3.4.7 Nanocellulose in food industry
3.5 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 4 - Nanocellulose hybrid systems: carriers of active compounds and aerogel/cryogel applications
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Production of CNCs or CNFs and application in hybrid systems
4.3 Production of CNC or CNF hybrid systems
4.4 ChNP-CNC-based cryogels: a case study
4.5 Conclusion and future challenges
References
CHAPTER 5 - Recent developments of bacterial nanocellulose porous scaffolds in biomedical applications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Properties of BNC
5.3 Importance of BNC in biomedical field
5.4 Synthesis and fabrication: development of porous scaffolds
5.4.1 Phase separation
5.4.2 Electrospinning
5.4.3 3D printing
5.4.4 Emulsion freeze-drying
5.4.5 Particle-leaching technique
5.4.6 Solvent casting
5.4.7 Irreversible electroporation
5.4.8 Microfluidics
5.4.9 Laser perforation
5.5 Bacterial porous scaffold in various biomedical applications
5.5.1 Tissue engineering and wound healing application
5.5.2 Bone
5.5.3 Cartilage
5.5.4 Urothelium/urethral regeneration
5.5.5 Angiogenesis or vascular networks
5.5.6 3D bioprinting
5.5.7 Drug delivery
5.5.8 Nerve injury repair
5.5.9 Cancer diagnosis
5.6 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
CHAPTER 6 - Characteristic features and functions of nanocellulose for its feasible application in textile industry
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sources of nanocellulose
6.3 Classification of nanocellulose structures
6.4 Preparation of nanocellulose
6.4.1 Experimental procedure
6.4.2 Preparation of solution of sodium zincate
6.4.3 Preparation of nanocellulose
6.5 General techniques used (specific techniques)
6.5.1 Top-down process
6.5.2 Bottom-up processes
6.5.3 Mechanical disintegration
6.5.4 Chemical reaction
6.5.5 Biological reaction
6.6 Pretreatment of nanocellulose
6.6.1 Pulping processes
6.6.2 Bleaching
6.6.3 Alkaline-acid-alkaline pretreatment
6.6.4 Enzymatic pretreatment
6.6.5 Ionic liquids
6.6.6 Oxidation
6.6.7 Steam explosion
6.6.8 Other pretreatments
6.7 Characterization and thermal analysis of nanocellulose particles
6.7.1 Characterization of nanocellulose particles
6.7.2 Characterization of prepared nanocellulose
6.7.3 Characterization of polyester/nanocellulose composite
6.7.4 Thermal analysis
6.8 Effects of nanocellulose on the properties of the textiles
6.8.1 Effect on tensile strength
6.8.2 Effect on crease recovery
6.8.3 Effect of nanocellulose on water absorbency of polyester fabric
6.8.4 Effect of nanocellulose on water permeability of polyester fabric
6.8.5 Effect of nanocellulose on air permeability of polyester fabric
6.8.6 Effect of nanocellulose on dyeing of treated fabric with a direct dye
6.9 Applications, advantages, and limitations of nanocellulose
6.10 Current trends and future scopes
6.11 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 7 - Nanocellulose in plastic industry
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Plastic in packaging
7.3 Bioplastics
7.4 Cellulose
7.5 Nanocellulosic composites: potential to replace plastics
7.5.1 Nanocellulose: enhancement in properties packaging material
7.6 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 8 - Nanocellulose in the sports industry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Nanocellulose–morphology and characteristics
8.3 Nanocellulose in the sports industry
8.3.1 The mechanical property of nanocellulose
8.3.2 Nanocellulose and its intrinsic thermal characteristics
8.3.3 Barrier properties of nanocellulose
8.3.4 Optical characteristics
8.4 Conclusion and future prospects
References
CHAPTER 9 - Uses of nanocellulose in the environment industry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Nanocellulose-based adsorbent
9.2.1 Nanocellulose: an adsorbent of residual antibiotics
9.2.2 Metal adsorption using nanocellulose
9.2.3 Nanocellulose: an adsorbent of organic pollutant
9.3 Photocatalysts based on nanocellulose
9.4 Flocculants based on nanocellulose
9.4.1 CNF-flocculated microalgae for lipid production
9.5 Nanocellulose uses in effluent treatment plant
9.5.1 Sorption of pollutants by functionalized nanocellulose
9.5.1.1 Heavy metal removal by sorption
9.5.1.2 Organic dye removal by sorption
9.5.2 NPs uses in water purification
9.5.2.1 Use of mushroom exopolysaccharides in synthesis of biogenic Silver NP (AgNP)
9.5.2.2 NSAgNP as antifouling agent
9.5.2.3 Purification of water using nanocellulose membranes
9.5.2.4 Electrospun nanofiber membrane for the removal of suspended solids and micron-sized particles
9.5.2.5 Nanocellulose filters for purification of water
9.5.2.6 Antimicrobial filters for purifying water
9.5.2.6.1 Antibacterial filters for purifying water
9.5.2.7 Water purification by green adsorbents
9.6 Biogenic NPs uses in agriculture
9.6.1 ZnO NPs
9.6.2 Gold NPs usage to enhance crop quality
9.7 Nanocellulose for air purification
9.7.1 Air purification by electrospun nanofiber mats
9.7.2 Air purification by electrostatically active NPs
9.7.3 Antimicrobial air purification by using nanofibrous membrane based on soy protein
9.8 Nanopaper
9.9 Nanocellulose uses in energy application
9.9.1 Perovskite solar cell as a source of energy
9.10 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 10 - Application of nanocellulose as nanotechnology in water purification
10.1 Introduction
10.2 NT-enabled multifunctional application of NC
10.3 Effective role of NC as biosorbent
10.3.1 Application of cellulose CFs as water purifier
10.3.2 Application of CNCs as water purifier
10.3.3 Current challenges and limitation of cellulose-based material in hydrology
10.4 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 11 - Cellulose-imidazole engineering hybrid materials/membrane for energy storage
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs)
11.2.1 Methods of preparation of CNCs and CNFs
11.2.2 Objectives and impact of imidazole-derivatives during the ­cellulose material fabrication
11.2.3 Imidazole-based nanocellulosic materials/membrane
11.2.4 Cellulose-imidazole engineering hybrid materials in the energy storage devices
11.2.5 Cellulose-imidazole based hybrid materials for supercapacitor
11.2.6 Cellulose-imidazole engineering hybrid materials for lithium ion batteries
11.3 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgment
Conflict of interest
References
CHAPTER 12 - Nanocellulose in electronics and electrical industry
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Fundamentals of nanocellulose in electronics
12.3 Cellulose nanopaper as a substrate in electronic devices
12.3.1 Promising characteristics and challenges of nanocellulose as electronic substrates
12.3.1.1 Transparency and low haze
12.3.1.2 Porosity and roughness
12.3.1.3 Mechanical properties
12.3.1.4 Hydrophilicity
12.3.2 Surface functionality of nanocellulose for enhanced properties
12.3.3 Transparent conductive cellulose nanopaper
12.4 Printed electronics
12.4.1 Conductive inks in printed electronics
12.4.2 Promising characteristics and challenges of nanocellulose as conductive inks
12.4.2.1 Charged densities for dispersion stability of conductive inks
12.4.2.2 Adsorption capacity
12.5 Applications of nanocellulose as green electronics
12.5.1 OLED for display
12.5.2 Electronic circuit and components
12.5.3 Antennas
12.6 Future remarks and conclusion
References
CHAPTER 13 - Nanocellulose in paper and wood industry
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Application in wood and paper industry
13.3 Papermaking
13.4 Application of NC in papermaking
13.5 Pulping
13.6 Wet-end chemistry
13.7 Paper coating
13.7.1 Paper quality
13.7.2 Packaging
13.7.3 Printing quality
13.8 Other application of NC in papermaking
13.8.1 Wood—adhesives (reinforcement agent)
13.8.2 Recycled paper
13.9 Challenges and future aspects in wood and paper industry
References
CHAPTER 14 - Environmental, legal, health, and safety issue of nanocellulose
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Cellulose to nanocellulose
14.1.2 Cellulose: the raw material
14.2 Characteristics of nanocellulose
14.3 Properties of nanocellulose materials
14.3.1 Mechanical properties
14.3.2 Optical properties
14.3.3 Thermal properties
14.4 Preparation and types of nanocellulose
14.4.1 Cellulose nanofibrils
14.4.2 Nanocellulose crystals
14.4.3 Bacterial cellulose
14.4.4 Other sources of nanocellulose
14.5 Production and extraction nanocellulose
14.5.1 Selection of sources
14.5.2 Pretreatment
14.5.3 Extraction
14.6 Application of nanocellulose
14.6.1 Nanocellulose in paper and film industry
14.6.2 Nanocellulose in the biomedical industry
14.6.3 Environmental application of nanocellulose
14.6.3.1 Water contaminant removal
14.6.3.2 Pollutant sensors
14.6.4 Nanocellulose in the energy application
14.7 Health issues of nanocellulose
14.7.1 In-vivo studies
14.7.2 In-vitro studies
14.7.3 Nanocellulose effect on GIT
14.7.3.1 Intrinsic factors
14.7.3.2 Extrinsic factors
14.7.4 Cytotoxic effects of nanocellulose
14.8 Environmental issues related to nanocellulose
14.9 Legal issues of nanocellulose
14.10 Safety issues of nanocellulose
14.11 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 15 - Integration of geospatial technology for mapping of algae: an economical perspective for assessing nanocellulose
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Sources of nanocellulose and their impact on economy
15.1.2 Remote sensing
15.2 Remote sensing applications for mapping spatial algal cover and harmful algal blooms (HABs)
15.2.1 Remote sensing–based algal spectral indices
15.2.1.1 Cellulose absorption index (CAI)
15.3 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
15.3.1 Benefits of UAVs in algal bloom research
15.3.2 UAV platforms used in algal bloom researches
15.4 Sensors and cameras used in remote sensing for algal bloom mapping
15.5 Quantitative analyses
15.6 Future opportunities
15.6.1 Hyperspectral UAVs
15.7 Socioeconomic impact
15.8 Climate change
15.9 Conclusions
References
Index
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