This book presents a comprehensive view on mycotoxins of agricultural as well as non-agricultural environments and their health effects in humans and animals. Mycotoxins have immunosuppressive effects; but some of them can cause cancers, mutagenicity, neurotoxicity, liver and kidney damage, birth defects, DNA damage and respiratory disorders. The problem of mycotoxins is long-lasting and their direct or indirect exposures to humans and animals must be further discussed. The first chapter will cover the historical perspective of mycotoxins along with timeline while the second one will provide overview including classification of mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses. The comprehensive information/ literature on traditional, emerging and mushroom mycotoxins will be given in chapters 3, 4 and 5 respectively. Chapter 6 will deal with mycotoxins co-occurrence poisoning whereas new and masked mycotoxins will be described in chapter 7. The important aspects of mycotoxin studies like extraction, characterization and analysis and management strategies will be summarized in 8 and 9 chapters. The last chapter of the book will cover the recent developments in toxicokinetic studies of mycotoxins. The book will have the most up-to-date information and recent discoveries to deliver accurate data and to illustrate essential points to a wide range of readers including mycologists, clinicians, agricultural scientists, chemists, veterinarians, environmentalists and food scientists.
Author(s): Karuna Singh, Ankita Kumari
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 198
City: Singapore
Preface
Contents
Abbreviations
Chapter 1: Historical Aspect
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Mycotoxins
1.2.1 Ergotism
1.2.2 Alimentary Toxic Aleukia (ATA)
1.2.3 Mouldy Corn Disease
1.2.4 Turkey-X Disease
1.2.5 Leukoencephalomalacia (ELEM), Porcine Pulmonary Oedema (PPE), and Human Oesophageal Cancer (EC)
1.2.6 Mouldy Sugarcane Poisoning
1.2.7 Cardiac Beriberi
1.2.8 Onyalai
1.2.9 Aflatoxin Poisoning in Dogs
1.2.10 Other Incidences
1.3 Discovery and Synthesis of Mycotoxins
1.3.1 Cyclopiazonic Acid (CPA)
1.3.2 Ochratoxin A (OTA)
1.3.3 Trichothecenes
1.3.4 Fumonisins
1.3.5 Patulin
1.3.6 Penicillic Acid
1.3.7 Gliotoxin
1.3.8 Sterigmatocystin
1.3.9 Tenuazonic Acid
1.3.10 Enniatin A
1.3.11 Fusaproliferin
1.3.12 Moniliformin
1.3.13 Fusaric acid
1.3.14 Culmorin
References
Chapter 2: Overview
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mycotoxicoses
2.3 Mycotoxins in Indoor Environment
2.4 Mushroom Toxins
2.5 Biomarkers
2.6 Mycotoxins Worldwide
2.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Traditional Mycotoxins and Their Health Implications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Aflatoxin
3.2.1 Sources
3.2.2 Environmental Conditions Favouring the Production of Aflatoxins
3.2.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics
3.2.4 Metabolism of Aflatoxin
3.2.5 Mechanism of Toxicological Damage
3.3 Fumonisins
3.3.1 Sources
3.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties
3.3.3 Environmental Conditions Favouring the Production of Fumonisins
3.3.4 Toxicity
3.3.5 Mechanism of Toxicological Damage
3.4 Trichothecene
3.4.1 T-2 Toxin
3.4.1.1 Sources
3.4.1.2 Environmental Conditions Favouring the Production of T-2 Toxin
3.4.1.3 Chemical Properties
3.4.1.4 Toxicity
3.4.1.5 Mechanism of Action
3.4.2 Deoxynivalenol
3.4.2.1 Sources
3.4.2.2 Chemical Properties
3.4.2.3 Environmental Conditions Favouring the Production of DON
3.4.2.4 Toxicity
3.5 Ergot Alkaloids
3.5.1 Sources
3.5.2 Chemical Properties
3.5.3 Toxicity
3.5.4 Mechanism of Toxicological Action
3.6 Ochratoxin
3.6.1 Sources
3.6.2 Chemical Structure
3.6.3 Toxicity
3.6.4 Mechanism of Toxicological Action
3.6.5 Metabolism of OTA
3.6.5.1 Absorption/Excretion/Residues
3.7 Zearalenone
3.7.1 Sources
3.7.2 Chemical Properties
3.7.3 Environmental Conditions Favouring the Production of Zearalenone
3.7.4 Toxicity
3.8 Patulin
3.8.1 Sources
3.8.2 Environmental Conditions Favouring the Production of Patulin
3.8.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
3.8.4 Toxicity
3.8.5 Mechanism of Toxicological Action
3.9 Alternariol (AOH) and Alternariol Monomethyl Ether (AME)
3.9.1 Sources
3.9.2 Conditions Favourable for the Production of Alternaria Toxin
3.9.3 Chemical Structure
3.9.4 Toxicity
3.10 Regulation of Mycotoxins
3.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Emerging Mycotoxins and Their Clinicopathological Effects
4.1 Beauvericin
4.1.1 Chemical Structure
4.1.2 Occurrence
4.1.3 Toxicity
4.2 Butenolide
4.2.1 Chemical Structure
4.2.2 Occurrence
4.2.3 Toxicity
4.3 Citrinin
4.3.1 Chemical Structure
4.3.2 Occurrence
4.3.3 Toxicity
4.4 Culmorin
4.4.1 Chemical Structure
4.4.2 Occurrence
4.4.3 Toxicity
4.5 Cyclopiazonic Acid
4.5.1 Chemical Structure
4.5.2 Occurrence
4.5.3 Toxicity
4.6 Emodin
4.6.1 Chemical Structure
4.6.2 Occurrence
4.6.3 Toxicity
4.7 Enniatins
4.7.1 Chemical Structure
4.7.2 Occurrence
4.7.3 Toxicity
4.8 Fusaric Acid
4.8.1 Chemical Structure
4.8.2 Occurrence
4.8.3 Toxicity
4.9 Fusaproliferin
4.9.1 Chemical Structure
4.9.2 Occurrence
4.9.3 Toxicity
4.10 Gliotoxin
4.10.1 Chemical Structure
4.10.2 Occurrence
4.10.3 Toxicity
4.11 Moniliformin
4.11.1 Chemical Structure
4.11.2 Occurrence
4.11.3 Toxicity
4.12 Mycophenolic Acid
4.12.1 Chemical Structure
4.12.2 Occurrence
4.12.3 Toxicity
4.13 Penicillic Acid
4.13.1 Chemical Structure
4.13.2 Occurrence
4.13.3 Toxicity
4.14 Phomopsins
4.14.1 Chemical Structure
4.14.2 Toxicity
4.15 Sterigmatocystin
4.15.1 Chemical Structure
4.15.2 Occurrence
4.15.3 Toxicity
4.16 Tenuazonic Acid
4.16.1 Chemical Structure
4.16.2 Occurrence
4.16.3 Toxicity
4.17 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Mushroom Toxins and Health Hazards Associated with Them
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classification of Toxic Mushrooms
5.3 Gyromitrin
5.3.1 Toxicity
5.4 Amanitin
5.5 Isoxazoles
5.5.1 Toxicity
5.6 Amino Acids
5.6.1 Toxicity
5.7 Orellanine or Orellanine-Trifluoroacetic Acid Complex
5.7.1 Toxicity
5.8 Hydroxyindole Derivatives
5.8.1 Psilocybin
5.8.2 Psilocin
5.8.3 Baeocystin
5.8.4 Norbaeocystin
5.8.5 Aeruginascin
5.9 Acromelic Acids (ACROs)
5.10 Gymnopilins
5.10.1 Toxicity
5.11 Illudins
5.12 Hebevinosides
5.13 Cycloprop-2-ene Carboxylic Acid
5.13.1 Toxicity
5.14 2R-Amino-4S-Hydroxy-5-Hexynoic Acid and 2R-Amino-5-Hexynoic Acid
5.15 Saponaceolides
5.16 Rare Mushroom Toxins
5.16.1 Trichothecenes
5.16.2 Ustalic Acid
5.16.3 Aziridine
5.17 Toxic Effects of Commonly Consumed Mushrooms
5.18 Diagnosis of Mushroom Poisoning
5.19 Prevention and Control
5.20 Future Prospects and Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Mycotoxins Co-occurrence Poisoning
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Multi-Mycotoxins in Food
6.3 Mycotoxin Co-occurrence in Animal Feeds
6.4 Mycotoxin Co-occurrence Toxicity
6.4.1 Mycotoxin Co-occurrence Toxicity in Humans
6.4.2 Mycotoxin Co-occurrence Toxicity in Animals
6.5 Future Prospects and Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Masked and New Mycotoxins
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Generation of Masked Mycotoxins in Plants
7.3 Generation of Masked Mycotoxins During Processing of Food
7.4 Metabolism of Mycotoxin in Animals
7.5 Toxicological Profile
7.6 Detection Methods
7.7 Future Prospect and Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Extraction, Characterization, and Analysis of Mycotoxins
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Methods of Detection
8.2.1 Extraction
8.2.2 Chromatographic Techniques
8.2.2.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
8.2.2.2 Reversed-Phase HPLC
8.2.2.3 Multichannel UV Detector with HPLC
8.2.3 Mass Spectrometry
8.2.4 FTIR and 1H NMR
8.2.5 New Methods
8.2.5.1 Immunological Techniques
8.2.5.2 Biosensors
8.2.5.3 Capillary Electrophoresis
8.2.5.4 Chemiluminescence and Bioluminescence Assays
8.2.5.5 Microplate ELISA
8.2.5.6 Using Mycotoxin Biosynthetic Gene Clustering for Identifying Mycotoxins
8.2.5.7 Real-Time PCR Assay
8.2.5.8 Nucleic Acid Sequence-Based Amplification (NASBA)
8.2.5.9 Lateral Flow Devices (LFD)
8.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Management Strategies
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Mycotoxins in Food and Feed
9.3 Factors Responsible for Mycotoxin Production
9.4 Decontamination
9.5 Prevention
9.6 Management
9.7 Regulation
9.8 Mycotoxin Reduction at Consumer Level: Suggestions
9.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Toxicokinetics of Mycotoxins
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Routes of Exposure and LADME
10.3 Toxicokinetics of Some Important Mycotoxins
10.3.1 Aflatoxin and OTA
10.3.2 Aflatoxins
10.3.2.1 Biodistribution, Metabolism, and Excretion
10.3.2.2 Mechanism of Action
10.3.2.3 Aflatoxin in Pregnant Mice
10.3.3 Deoxynivalenol
10.3.3.1 Absorption
10.3.3.2 Gastrointestinal Metabolism
10.3.3.3 Bioavailability
10.3.3.4 Distribution
10.3.3.5 Excretion
10.3.3.6 Transmission
10.3.3.7 Metabolism
10.3.4 Ochratoxin A
10.3.4.1 Absorption
10.3.4.2 Distribution
Binding to Plasma Proteins
Tissular Distribution
10.3.4.3 Elimination
10.3.5 Alternaria Mycotoxins: AOH, AME, and TeA
10.3.5.1 Alternariol (AOH) and Alternariol Monomethyl Ether (AME)
10.3.5.2 Tenuazonic Acid (TeA)
10.3.6 Fusarenon-X (a Type B Trichothecene Mycotoxin)
10.3.6.1 Absorption and Distribution
10.3.6.2 Metabolism
10.3.6.3 Elimination
10.3.7 Cyclopiazonic Acid
10.3.7.1 Absorption
10.3.7.2 Distribution, Metabolism, and Elimination
10.3.8 Beauvericin and Enniatins
10.3.9 Moniliformin
References
